Adrenal hormones: characteristics and effects on the human body. The influence of hormones on brain function

In case of malfunctions endocrine system a breakdown begins in the body. Change hormonal balance may depend on phase menstrual cycle, changing seasons, mood and age. Due to these factors, changes in a woman’s appearance begin to occur; increased appetite and weight fluctuations may appear.

Weight is one of the factors that influences the onset of menstruation, along with climate, lifestyle, diet, etc. Thus, a girl with a large body weight may begin her period 1-2 years earlier than her thin peers.

There are hormones that affect the female body. These include:

• estrogens;
• testosterone;
• progesterone;
• DHEA;
• thyroid hormones;
• cortisol;
• insulin and glucagon;
• prolactin;
• stucco molding

• Estrogens. The hormone is considered exclusively female, as it is reproduced by the ovaries. It has functions related to the distribution of body fat mass, it regulates cyclic processes in female body. Due to the work of estrogen fat mass in young people it is located in the lower part of the figure (on the hips), and in women after menopause above the waist (on the stomach). With a lack of estrogen, excess weight gain occurs. The level of this hormone can often drop in stressful situations.
• Testosterone. In women, it is produced by the adrenal glands and ovaries. When this hormone begins to decrease, muscle mass is lost, the metabolic process slows down, which ultimately leads to the accumulation of fat. It is more common in women in adulthood with a low level of physical activity.
• Progesterone. Increases during and after ovulation. Thanks to him, the female body begins to store all the useful substances in order to safely bear a child. Because of high level progesterone in pregnant women, their appetite increases and they suffer strong feeling hunger. If the hormone is constantly elevated in non-pregnant women, then disruptions in the reproductive system begin and metabolism is disrupted. The body perceives this as false pregnancy, begins to accumulate adipose tissue. Progesterone removes excess fluid, but if its level drops, swelling appears. A gynecologist-endocrinologist will help you avoid these deviations and improve the functioning of your body.
• DHEA. Help the body quickly get rid of excess weight. This hormone is produced by the adrenal glands and is considered primarily male, but small amounts are also present in women. Increased DHEA leads to weight gain. In the female body, in order to produce DHEA, there must be enzymes that are unique to functioning ovaries. An increased dose of DHEA leads to weight loss, fat deposition begins as in men (on the abdomen), the thickness and stiffness of hair on the body and face increases, and acne begins.
• Thyroid hormones. Are being produced thyroid gland. When their deficiency is observed in the female body, it occurs speed dial weight.
• Cortisol. It is also called the stress hormone. It is produced by the adrenal glands and is close to adrenaline. Cortisone acts as a protective mechanism for the body; it is released at times of stress or fear, increases appetite, and slows down metabolism.
• Insulin and glucagon. Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels. Glucagon releases it into the blood, thereby maintaining balance. If there is an imbalance of these hormones, diabetes develops.
• Prolactin – female hormone produced by the pituitary gland. When its synthesis increases, weight gain occurs and appetite increases. An increase in prolactin is observed not only in pregnant women, but also in nulliparous women, which is accompanied by cycle disruption and problems with conceiving a child.
• Lepnin is responsible for weight and sufficient fat reserves in the female body. It also regulates appetite, sending an impulse that the body is full. When its level decreases, a feeling of hunger occurs. Overweight people have increased levels of plaster, so they want to eat more. Eating fish and other seafood evens out the stucco level.

When does an increase in hormones occur?

After 35 years, the aging process gradually begins and hormonal levels are disrupted. After 40, it becomes difficult for women to lose weight because testosterone levels begin to fall, muscle mass is lost, and fat is deposited in greater quantities. Estrogen levels decrease, skin loses its elasticity, and hair becomes dull and weak. Hormonal levels decreases 10 years before menopause. But if you take it on time and correctly hormonal drugs, then your weight will be easy to maintain at normal levels.

During pregnancy, a woman's estrogen levels increase; they take part during contractions and stimulate the uterus. The level of prolactin gradually increases - it prepares the uterus for the upcoming birth and keeps the embryo from being born prematurely. Thanks to this hormone, enough breast milk during feeding. Violation hormonal levels occurs with unstable feedings.

Study

You can check whether the above hormones are normal by taking a blood test. Blood is taken from a vein in the morning, on an empty stomach. IN reproductive age Some of the tests must be taken on certain days of the cycle. For example, prolactin and estradiol - on days 5-7, and progesterone - on day 22. Some laboratories have a package of tests to determine the cause of excess weight. The standards are indicated in the table.

Women's weight and hormones are very closely related to each other, and any disruption can lead to obesity. Reduced or increased level hormones provoke not only weight gain, but also diseases of which it is a symptom.

What hormones do the adrenal glands produce and their functions?

Hormones of the adrenal cortex are part of the body's humoral endocrine regulatory system.

Their impact on the human body cannot be overestimated, because any deviation from the norm (decreased or increased production) can cause the development of pathology.

Features of the structure of the adrenal glands and the principle of their work

The physiology of the adrenal glands is quite simple, but in order to understand the principle of performing the main functions of these glands, it is necessary to understand the features and their structure.

When examining the organs in cross-section, it becomes clear that they consist of two layers - the cortex and the medulla.

The basis of the organ is the adrenal cortex (occupies more than 90% of the total mass).

The hormones of these small paired organs are classified depending on the composition of the substances they produce.

The adrenal cortex can be roughly divided into 3 zones:

Medullary layer of glands internal secretion has an uncomplicated appearance. It consists of glandular and nerve cells.

Such elements produce hormones of the adrenal medulla into the body: adrenaline and norepinephrine.

Substances are produced in the highest concentrations in the human body under stress.

Hormones of the cortical and medulla affect the human body with the same degree of importance, therefore any problems in the functioning of the organ affect general health person.

Brain matter

The substance is located in the deepest part of the organ.

It consists of tissues containing a sufficient mass of blood vessels.

It is thanks to this component that the body of a person experiencing increased stress produces the most important hormones:

• adrenalin;
• norepinephrine.

Under the influence of these hormones from the endocrine glands, the heart muscle begins to contract intensively.

As a result, a person’s blood pressure increases, and muscle spasms often occur, because an excess of hormones is no less dangerous than a deficiency.

Hormones of the medulla of the endocrine glands and their effect on the individual’s body have been well studied by doctors.

Glucocorticoids are responsible for common reactions that occur in the human body.

Hormones produced by the medulla - glucocorticoids

Among the list of main functions of glucocorticoids are:

1. Increasing the mass fraction of glucose in the blood by reducing the absorption of glucose by tissues.

As a result, direct antagonism of insulin occurs, this provokes a compensatory release of pancreatic hormone as a result of stimulation of the process of gluconeogenesis.

1. Adrenal hormone accelerates lipolysis.

The decomposition of fats occurs most actively on the extremities, because the receptors located in these parts are most susceptible to glucocorticoids.

1. The role of the adrenal glands and their hormones in the human body is a pronounced anti-inflammatory effect.
2. The elements accelerate the breakdown of proteins in muscle tissue.
3. During normal production of hormones by the adrenal glands, receptors for mineralocorticoids are activated.

Excess corticosteroid in the body is a negative indicator. When the concentration of this hormone is increased, the metabolic rate decreases, the human body becomes less resistant to the negative effects of external factors.

Considering the main tasks of the adrenal cortex, one cannot fail to mention that they are required to ensure the following processes:

1. Acceleration of gluconeogenesis.
2. Detection of blood glucose concentration.
3. Participation in the breakdown of adipose tissue and the release of fatty acids.
4. Security normal process production of collagen fibers.
5. Decreased calcium concentration in the blood.
6. Acceleration of formation and excretion of urine.
7. Regulation of psychological state and sleep.

It is worth saying that both layers of the adrenal glands are closely correlated with each other, despite the significant difference in structure.

Mineralocorticoids and their effects

Mineralocorticoids are vital elements necessary for the normal functioning of the human body.

Hormones of the adrenal cortex are involved in the regulation mineral metabolism And water balance body.

The following substances act as inhibitors of the synthesis and secretion of mineralocorticoids:

• dopamine;
• atrial natriuretic hormone.

Strengthening the synthesis of these hormones depends on the flow of blood into the adrenal medulla - the blood supply.

It is important to note that such hormones are necessary to ensure human life processes.

In case of forced removal of the adrenal glands future life is possible only with the additional introduction of these elements.

Steroids: male and female sex substances

Sex hormones of the adrenal medulla have a significant effect on the formation of sexual characteristics already in childhood.

The lack of their production during this period can cause serious deviations from developmental norms.

Sex hormones produced by the adrenal glands are no less necessary for the normal development of the individual’s body.

This material must be produced in normal volumes. Because its deficiency, like its excess, has a negative effect on the human body.

Sex hormones are especially necessary for women; they provide normal course the processes listed below:

• normal puberty;
• successful conception;
• ensuring normal gestation during pregnancy.

A hormonal excess of steroids in the body leads to increased appetite, which certainly affects the figure and symptoms of obesity appear.

It should be noted that this is a favorable prerequisite for the development of diabetes.

Among the list of symptoms characteristic of hormonal imbalance in women are:

• menstrual irregularities;
• frequent mood changes;
• impossibility of conception;
• loss of skin elasticity;
• manifestation of wrinkles.

Impaired steroid production in men manifests itself in decreased libido.

Factors and signs of hormonal imbalance

The sources of hormonal disorders in the human body are often associated with lifestyle disorders. But this does not always happen.

Often, such changes in the body are associated with factors beyond a person’s control.

Among the causes of hormonal disorders are the following:

1. Genetic predisposition (if the mother had problems with hormones, it is possible that the daughter may have hormonal imbalances).
2. Long-term use medicines(especially combined oral contraceptives, pick up similar drugs should be a doctor who has studied the general hormonal picture of a woman).
3. Puberty period.
4. The period of pregnancy and childbirth.
5. Nicotine addiction and alcohol abuse.

The following factors also play a role:

1. Disturbances in the normal functioning of the thyroid gland.
2. Liver and kidney disorders.
3. Sudden weight changes.
4. Constantly being in stressful situations.
5. Long-term depression.

It is possible to identify a deficiency or excess of hormones in the body.

To do this, you need to pay attention to the manifestation of various symptoms, such as weight gain, severe PMS in women, hair loss, and increased swelling.

Correct functioning hormonal system The body largely depends on the functioning of the adrenal glands.

It is the function of the adrenal cortex in the body that enhances its protective functions and increases people’s resistance to disease.

If you experience symptoms of disturbances in the production of adrenal hormones, you should contact a specialist.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone: biological role in the body, methods of determination and norms

Endocrine diseases remain one of the most difficult to diagnose: for a long time hormonal disorders are asymptomatic, and only when pronounced deviation from the norm they give bright clinical picture. Wherein the real reason The patient's unsatisfactory state of health can only be detected after laboratory tests.

One of the important indicators of the functioning of the thyroid gland is the thyroid-stimulating hormone - TSH hormone. He can tell the endocrinologist a lot. Let's take a closer look at it biological role in the body, influence on the functioning of the endocrine organ and modern laboratory methods definitions in our review and video in this article.

Functions of TSH

Although thyrotropin is determined in the composition comprehensive research The thyroid gland is produced in the cells of the pituitary gland, a small anatomical formation of the brain. This substance is called a regulator of the thyroid gland: the amount of thyroxine and triiodothyronine produced largely depends on it glandular cells endocrine organ.

To better understand the function of TSH in the body, it is necessary to understand the features of hormonal regulation in the human body.

Table 1: Regulation of the thyroid gland:

T3 and T4, in turn, via a feedback mechanism, regulate the production of liberins and statins in the hypothalamus. High concentration hormones in the blood triggers the synthesis of thyreostatins, which suppress the production of TSH and, accordingly, thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Low concentration Thyroid hormones “force” the hypothalamus to produce thyroid hormones, which stimulate the production of TSH, T3 and T4.

Thus, the determination of thyroid-stimulating hormone allows not only to assume the presence of an endocrine disease, but also to judge the type and mechanism of hormonal regulation disorder.

In addition to directly stimulating the production of thyroid hormones, TSH is responsible for:

• saturation of the thyroid gland with iodine (transport of its molecules from plasma to organ cells);
• increased blood supply to the thyroid gland;
• increased protein production in the body;
• regulation of the synthesis of nucleic acids and phospholipids;
• increased lipolysis - the breakdown of adipose tissue.

Note! For hypothyroidism syndrome - endocrine diseases, which are associated with a decrease in the production of T3 and T4, there is a reflex increase in the concentration of TSH, “trying” to force thyroid gland work. Hyperthyroidism, on the contrary, is accompanied by extremely low levels of this hormone.

Determination methods

To determine the TSH level, 2-5 ml is enough venous blood. There are several bio options chemical reactions determination of thyrotropin, but all of them are based on the binding of the glycoprotein hormone to special proteins and calculation of its concentration. The average price of analysis in private laboratories is 500 rubles.

Indications for the purpose of the study

• screening examination for latent (hidden) hypothyroidism;
• diagnosed hypothyroidism to monitor treatment (1-2 times a year, for life);
• diagnosed Graves' disease (once every 3-6 months, until cure);
• an increase in the size of the thyroid gland - goiter;
• developmental delay (mental, sexual) in children;
• violations heart rate, cardiomyopathies;
• idiopathic hypothermia – low body temperature;
• chronic depression;
• alopecia - baldness;
• potency disorders and decreased libido in men;
• primary or secondary infertility, amenorrhea in women;
• other health problems (as recommended by a doctor).

Preparing for analysis

It is advisable to measure TSH - thyroid-stimulating hormone - in the morning on an empty stomach.

The instructions for preparing for analysis include several recommendations:

1. Before taking blood, it is advisable not to eat for 8-14 hours.
2. Don't eat breakfast before the test. The only drink allowed is clean boiled water.
3. If necessary, it is allowed to conduct research during the day. It is important that the last meal is 4-5 hours before the test.
4. Avoid alcohol 2-3 days before the test.
5. Rest before donating blood calm atmosphere 5-10 minutes.
6. To monitor TSH levels, it is recommended to conduct the test at the same hours: this will eliminate the influence of daily hormone fluctuations on the test results.

Note! Like many other hormones, TSH is subject to physiological daily fluctuations. Its maximum values ​​are observed at night (approximately 2-4 hours), minimum – at 17-18 hours. It is important to take this into account during analysis.

Normal values

Normal thyroid-stimulating hormone levels may vary slightly depending on the equipment and reagents used in a particular laboratory. The average reference values ​​are presented in the table below.

Table 2: Normal values TSH:

Expectant mothers experience a decrease in thyrotropin concentrations. This phenomenon is normal and caused by hormonal changes in a woman’s body.

TSH norm on different dates pregnancy is presented below:

• 1st trimester (1-13 weeks) –0.10-2.50 mU/l;
• 2nd trimester (14-26 weeks) –0.20-3.00 mU/l;
• 3rd trimester (27-42 weeks) –0.30-3.00 mU/l.

Reasons for deviation from the norm

Changes in thyrotropin levels – important indicator, reflecting hormonal disorders in the thyroid gland.

An increase in the concentration of this hormone is observed when:

• thyrotropinoma – tumor of the basal cells of the pituitary gland that produce TSH;
• pituitary adenoma;
• syndrome of resistance (resistance) to TSH;
• primary or secondary hypothyroidism;
• adrenal insufficiency;
• Hashimoto's thyroiditis;
• severe chronic diseases;
• mental illness;
• preeclampsia ( severe complications pregnancy);
• lead poisoning;
• hemodialysis treatment;
• taking some medicines(anticonvulsants, beta blockers, antipsychotics, diuretics, diuretics);
• after cholecystectomy.

In the treatment of elevated thyrotropin, it is important to act on the cause that caused hormonal disorders. When canceling an adverse action external environment or therapy for the underlying disease, the TSH level quickly returns to normal through a feedback mechanism.

Note! Clinical hypothyroidism is one of the most common causes of increased levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone. In this case, only long-term regular use can correct endocrine disorders. medications– synthetic analogs of T3 and T4. Traditional methods, and homemade remedies are ineffective for hypothyroidism.

The most common causes of decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations include:

• hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis);
• pituitary adenoma (thyrotoxic);
• hyperthyroidism of pregnancy;

Masha Kovalchuk

00:00 6.11.2015

Everyone perceives and experiences love in their own way. Some grow wings, while others experience real agony. But on physical level we are controlled, so to speak, by love hormones.

Remember how, during the period of falling in love, emotions were heightened by a simple fleeting touch, the sound of a voice, a glance. This is the so-called hormone of love and desire - dopamine. It is this hormone that is activated and causes you to experience the most powerful stress from romantic love. And a whole range of feelings and a storm of emotions arises - from fear and embarrassment to absolute happiness and euphoria.

According to Professor Fisher's theory, romantic love lasts from 17 months to three years.

But maybe more if there are any obstacles. For example, the distance between lovers or if one of the partners is married. Although this can be argued.

According to many scientists, it is the romantic feeling that is most difficult to part with. When satisfaction and reciprocity of feelings are delayed, the brain still continues to activate love hormones, thereby intensifying feelings and exacerbating emotions. And if love is unrequited, then pain, suffering arises, the lover is in constant voltage and things can easily lead to a nervous breakdown.

Love is 5 hormones, that's all?

No matter how highly we place the object of our sighs, no matter what beautiful words Although they were sought to express feelings, love is, first of all, a hormonal process in which many hormones are involved. 5 of them are the most important.

Dopamine

Dopamine is the hormone of determination and concentration. It is produced in the body at the moment of falling in love, it forces you to achieve goals, to strive for complete possession.

According to its chemical structure, dopamine belongs to biogenic amines, specifically catecholamines. Dopamine is a precursor to norepinephrine (and, accordingly, adrenaline) in its biosynthesis.

Interestingly, according to the Institute of Neuroscience, Mental Health and Addictions (Canada), activation of the dopamine system precedes the actual behavior that brings satisfaction, pleasure or reward. The amount of dopamine released depends on the specific results of the behavior or activity and the feeling of satisfaction.

If the behavior brings satisfaction and meets expectations, then the brain potentiates the corresponding amount of dopamine released for the future, making this expectation, as well as the activity of this kind, pleasant.

If the behavior did not bring the desired results, then dopamine levels for such activity in the future will be low. People lose interest and motivation in the face of something that no longer brings the expected result.

The researchers also concluded that dopamine plays a critical role in how we learn to remember sources of satisfaction and pleasure. Moreover, dopamine facilitates cognitive processes and is released by the brain in response to novelty and the search for pleasure. In other words, the dopamine system provides us with the desire to receive what suits us according to natural indicators and will bring satisfaction in the form of pleasure, happiness or bliss.

Serotonin

Serotonin is a pleasure hormone. Oddly enough, at this stage its production decreases, so love is often associated with suffering.

Serotonin affects many body functions. In the anterior lobe of the brain, with the participation of this hormone, areas that are responsible for cognitive process. When this hormone enters the spinal cord, it improves motor function and muscle tone increases. In this state, a person has a feeling of omnipotence.

But the most important function of this hormone in our body is to elevate our mood, which is created in the cerebral cortex. If there is not enough of this substance in the body, this leads to depression.

It also affects emotional stability and susceptibility to stress. If a person has normal levels of this hormone, he can easily cope with stressful situations. And, conversely, if its level is lowered, then any little thing can throw such a person out of normal balance.

For normal production of this hormone, it is necessary to eat food rich in tryptophan and carbohydrates, which stimulate its synthesis. This hormone causes our body to feel full. When you eat food containing tryptophan, your mood improves due to the production of serotonin. Our brain immediately makes a connection between these two states, so when we are depressed, our body tries to improve our mood by eating carbohydrates and foods rich in tryptophan.

The antipode of serotonin is melatonin, which is produced from this hormone in the pineal gland. The higher the illumination, the lower the production of melatonin. Since melatonin is produced only from serotonin, insomnia occurs in depression: we need melatonin to fall asleep, but without serotonin it is impossible to get it.

Scientists have determined that a chemical that creates a positive mood also causes cancer cells to be eliminated. Scientists have discovered that when serotonin is mixed in the same vessel with Central African lymphoma cells, the latter are destroyed. Principal investigator Professor Gordon said: "It is a naturally occurring chemical that is synthesized by the body and regulates a person's mood. Excess of this chemical tends to affect sleep and appetite. We have learned that this substance has the incredible ability to cause certain third-party cells to be eliminated." Today, scientists are developing a method for treating cancer based on this property serotonin. The American magazine Blood provides an observation of the above developments.

An amazing fact is that the cause-and-effect relationship between the amount of serotonin in the body and mood is “two-way”. If the level of this substance increases, it creates good mood, if you are in a good mood, serotonin begins to be produced.

And there are a lot of methods to improve your mood. Analyze the above facts again, and you will understand what great benefit gives a good mood. However, our mood is only good at times. And most often our mood cannot be controlled by us; more often, on the contrary, it controls our actions. But you shouldn’t give up because of this.

Adrenalin

Adrenaline is a stress hormone that increases our normal capabilities. Its production in lovers increases, which leads them to a state of inspiration and the desire to “move mountains.”

The most important hormone produced by the adrenal medulla.

Adrenaline is released into the blood during “fear, flight or battle”, allowing a person to adapt to the current situation and influencing blood circulation, muscular system and metabolism in his body.

Under the influence of this hormone, the frequency and strength of contractions of the heart muscle, as well as the frequency and depth of breathing, increases, the rate of metabolic processes increases, muscle performance improves, and muscle fatigue occurs much later. At the same time, blood supply urinary organs And gastrointestinal tract decreases, their muscles relax, and the sphincters, on the contrary, contract. Initially, it was believed that adrenaline is released in the human body due to sympathetic nerves, which is why they were previously called adrenergic nerves. In fact, the main substance released is norepinephrine, from which adrenaline is then formed. Adrenaline injections help well in treatment bronchial asthma, since this relaxes the muscles of the bronchi. Adrenaline is used for surgical interventions or injected through an endoscope to reduce blood loss, since under the influence of this substance a narrowing of blood vessels located in the skin and mucous membranes occurs. Adrenaline is included in a number of solutions used for long-term local anesthesia, especially in dentistry.

Endorphins

Hormones of peace and satisfaction. They are released upon physical contact with the object of love, bringing lovers a feeling of well-being and security.

Let us immediately note that the more such hormones are produced in the human body, the happier their owner is. People first started talking about endorphin hormones in the middle of the last century. It was then that scientists discovered and confirmed that these “happiness hormones” are produced directly by the brain.

A sufficient amount of endorphins makes a person not only happy, but also strong, energetic, and purposeful.

If you meet a gloomy, apathetic person on your way, do not judge him harshly. His mood is very easy to explain - his brain does not produce enough endorphins that would help him feel all the joy of life.

Even though the brain large quantity people no longer produce enough endorphins, the situation can actually be changed in the opposite direction. To do this, you just need to perk up a little and start taking action. First of all, grab a tracksuit and head to the gym. Remember, just half an hour of intense exercise and you are provided with “happiness hormones” for two whole hours.

Increases the production of endorphins and sexual intercourse. The more often you have sex with your loved one, the more endorphins your brain will produce.

Pregnancy is another way to feel happy. This is explained by the fact that during pregnancy a woman’s body produces not just a large amount, but great amount endorphins. The closer the moment of birth, the greater the amount of “happiness hormones” produced. It should also be noted that it is possible to increase the production of these hormones with the help of certain foods. These include potatoes, bananas, bell pepper, rice, ice cream, fish, almonds, and seaweed. A special product in in this case is chocolate. Most likely, everyone knows that chocolate improves mood and strength. There is hardly a single woman who has never turned to chocolate for help when “cats are scratching at her soul.”

Oxytocin and vasopressin

Hormones of tenderness and affection. They begin to develop in happy lovers when their relationship moves into the phase of mutual love and confidence in each other. Oddly enough, they reduce the production of hormones of the first phase of relationships. As a result, ardent passion fades as tender affection grows.

The neuropeptide oxytocin plays an important role in the regulation social behavior in animals, including humans.

It has previously been shown that under the influence of oxytocin, people become kinder, more trusting, and more attentive to others.

These studies, however, did not take into account the fact that altruism among people since ancient times has been parochial, that is, aimed only at “their own.” New experiments conducted by Dutch psychologists have shown that positive effects oxytocin is distributed to those whom a person considers “friends”, but not to members of competing groups. Oxytocin increases the desire to protect one's own and can stimulate preemptive strikes against strangers in order to protect against possible aggression on their part.

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

The neurohormone of animals and humans, which is produced in the hypothalamus, enters the pituitary gland and is then released into the blood. Vasopressin stimulates the reabsorption of water in the renal tubules and thus reduces the amount of urine excreted (antidiuretic effect). With a lack of vasopressin, urine output sharply increases, which can lead to diabetes insipidus. Thus, vasopressin is one of the factors determining the relative constancy water-salt metabolism in organism. Vasopressin also causes vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure.

Vasopressin also affects erections in many mammals. In this respect, male rats, rabbits and men are built the same. Vasopressin is largely responsible for relationships with wives. An amazing result was obtained by Swedish neuroscientists who, using vole mice, showed how to turn incorrigible flighty people into faithful spouses. To do this, scientists compared the monogamous species of steppe voles Microtus ochrogaster with the polygamous meadow voles Microtus pennsylvanicus.

It turned out that if a polygamous species increases the expression of vasopressin receptors to the level of a monogamous species, then the male, who previously, like all his relatives, was promiscuous sex life, becomes attached to one female with whom he entered into a relationship. And the rest wonderful representatives rodents cause him aggression and hostility.

Libido lives in the head

Not all scientists adhere to the chemical concept of love. British biologists Andreas Bartels and Semir Zeki believe that love is a specific activity of the human brain. They examined the brains of seventeen volunteers in a state of “crazy love.” They were simply shown photographs of their loved ones. In all seventeen, when looking at an object, four areas of the brain were activated, which remained quiet if the photographs were of friends or strangers. Two of these areas are in the part of the brain that is activated after taking "cheer" pills. The other two are in the part of the brain that is activated when we receive emotional reward.

Today scientists know that libido ( sexual desire) originates in the head and from there spreads throughout the body with the help of neurotransmitters - substances that carry signals. In the hypothalamus, a small gland deep in the brain, neuroscientists have discovered as many as seven centers associated with sex. When they are activated, a person experiences strong sexual arousal. So the orgasm starts in the head, not where you thought it would.

Photo in text: Shutterstock.com

What happens in a person's brain when he falls in love? Infographics

Scientists have found that when we feel love, joy, fear and other emotions, certain substances and hormones are produced in the body. The influence of hormones is especially obvious when observing animals. It is not known for certain how much a person depends on the chemical reactions of the body.

AiF.ru figured out what substances, according to scientists, make up the “formula of love.”

Loyalty:

Vasopressin is a pituitary hormone similar in molecular structure to oxytocin. This hormone is responsible for affection, the desire to take care of another person and marital fidelity.

Animals confirm this fact. Mammals that create strong family unions for life, do this due to the fact that they distinguish the smell of vasopressin and oxytocin.

Likes: pheromones

In 1959, entomologists Peter Carlson and Martin Lusher proposed calling the substances that an animal secretes into environment and which cause certain behavioral responses in another animal of the same species.

In animals, the power of pheromones is very strong, in particular, it is pheromones that allow males and females to find each other and engage in sexual contact.

Androsterone (or androstenone) is a male sex hormone derived from the hormone. It is found in urine and sweat. The smell of this hormone attracts women in the middle of their cycle, but not the rest of the time. Men always find the smell of this hormone repulsive. Scientists believe that this androsterone increases sexual attractiveness and helps attract the opposite sex.

Copulins are hormones similar to androstenone, but only in women. This substance attracts men.

Humans, unlike animals, control their feelings and behavior, so the power of hormones over us is not so strong. Research confirms that participants did not experience romantic feelings or sexual arousal when they inhaled these substances. However, many people continue to believe in the magical properties of pheromones, and the production of perfumes with pheromones has been put into production.

Mood:

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter - one of the substances that is a chemical transmitter of impulses between nerve cells human brain.

This substance increases muscle tone and increases physical activity. Serotonin improves mood, and its deficiency causes depression.

Serotonin production is promoted by carbohydrate foods such as bread, bananas, chocolate, table sugar or fructose. This indirectly confirms the prevailing assertion in society that people with a sweet tooth, as well as fat people kinder than thin ones.

Pleasure:

Dopamine (or dopamine) is a substance from the phenylethylamine group.

Scientists believe that dopamine is responsible for the feeling of pleasure. This chemical is released most during eating and sexual intercourse.

*Phenylethylamine — chemical compound, which is the parent compound for some naturally occurring neurotransmitters, and its derivatives are psychedelics and stimulants.

*Oxytocin- a hormone of the hypothalamus, which is then transported to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where it accumulates (deposited) and is released into the blood.

*Vasopressin- a hypothalamic hormone that accumulates in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (in the neurohypophysis) and is secreted from there into the blood.

*Testosterone- the main male sex hormone, androgen. It is secreted by the cells of the testes in men, as well as in small quantities by the ovaries in women and the adrenal cortex in both sexes.

*Serotonin- one of the main neurotransmitters. By chemical structure serotonin belongs to the biogenic amines, a class of tryptamines.

*Dopamine- a neurotransmitter produced in the brains of humans and animals. It is also a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla and other tissues (for example, kidneys), but this hormone almost does not penetrate into the subcortex of the brain from the blood. According to its chemical structure, dopamine is classified as a catecholamine. Dopamine is the biochemical precursor to norepinephrine (and adrenaline).

Doctor of Medical Sciences V. Grinevich, Professor of the Department of Histology and Embryology of the Russian State Medical University, laureate of Fogarty scholarships ( National institutions Health, USA), Alexander von Humboldt (Germany) and the European Academy Prize.

1. Please describe the state of the field of science in which you work, what was it like about 20 years ago? What research was carried out then, what scientific results were the most significant? Which of them have not lost their relevance today (what remains in the foundation of the building of modern science)?

2. Describe the current state of the field of science and technology in which you work. What kind of work recent years do you consider the most important, of fundamental importance?

3. What milestones will your field of science reach in 20 years? What fundamental problems do you think can be solved, what problems will concern researchers at the end of the first quarter of the 21st century?

The questions of the questionnaire “Yesterday, today, tomorrow” (see “Science and Life” No. , , 2004; No. , , , 2005) are answered by famous scientists - the authors of “Science and Life”.

"Yesterday". The field of science that I study is endocrinology, which studies the physiology and pathology of the endocrine glands: the thyroid gland, gonads, adrenal glands, etc. Their totality is called the endocrine system. The main active principles in it are biologically active substances - hormones. It is noteworthy that the term “hormone” (from the ancient Greek verb “hormao” - to set in motion, to motivate) turns 100 years old this year. It was introduced by the American-English physiologist Ernest Starling, whose lectures, given in June 1905 at the Royal College of Physicians of London, essentially began endocrinology as a science.

The most significant discovery in the field of endocrinology made since Starling was the discovery in the brain of biologically active substances having the properties of hormones. They are released into the blood and stimulate the endocrine glands, coordinating their activities. These substances were called neurohormones, and the branch of endocrinology that studies them was called neuroendocrinology.

It turned out that the brain (namely its evolutionarily ancient department - the hypothalamus) is the “composer” of the orchestra of endocrine glands. Hypothalamic neurohormones act on the pituitary gland, which secretes a wide range of hormones, which in turn stimulate the endocrine glands. By the way, the pituitary gland, a small appendage of the brain, is known even to the public who is not versed in science thanks to M. A. Bulakov’s story “The Heart of a Dog” and its brilliant film adaptation. Fine tuning of the work occurs through the pituitary gland endocrine glands, which regulate the sexual functions of the body, an adequate response to stress, the growth and reproduction of body cells, the consumption of oxygen and glucose by tissues and many other physiological processes.

American researchers Andrew Shelley and Roger Guillemin were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1977 for their discovery of neurohormones. Until now, this is the only Nobel Prize in the field of endocrinology.

"Today". Currently, there is an active accumulation of information about the genes of neurohormones, the regulation of their activity, the effect of hormones on the receptors of body cells, their participation in various pathological processes. Obtaining such data has become possible thanks to the development of sophisticated genetic and molecular biological methods that have appeared in the last 10-20 years. First of all, this concerns manipulations with DNA, as a result of which it is possible to obtain animals without a certain gene (so-called knockout animals), as well as with an altered or new gene from another organism (transgenic animals).

Our understanding of the spectrum of action of hormones is expanding. They became involved in complex behavioral acts. In addition, neurohormones control not only the endocrine glands, but also other body systems, such as the immune and cardiovascular systems. This was discovered back in the 30-40s of the 20th century by the “father” of the study of stress, Canadian researcher Hans Selye. It turned out that in animals exposed to emotional stress for a long time, the adrenal glands increased and at the same time decreased. thymus(thymus) is the central organ of the immune system. Subsequently, it became clear that during stress, the brain produces neurohormones that stimulate the adrenal cortex, which begins to produce steroid hormones. One of them, cortisol (in rodents, corticosterone), often called the stress hormone, directly suppresses the immune system. Largely thanks to this observation, a new medical and biological discipline has emerged - neuroimmunoendocrinology, which studies the interaction of the nervous, immune and endocrine systems.

To illustrate what neuroimmunoendocrinology does, I will give an example. Each of us has suffered from viral or bacterial infections. In this case, the immune system is activated, its cells produce many substances aimed at destroying the source of the pathogen. Among wide range These substances contain a group of proteins called cytokines. In the immune system, they play the role of coordinators of various types of cells. Cytokines enter the blood and stimulate brain cells that produce neurohormones. One of these neurohormones, corticol berine, triggers the production of cortisol by the adrenal cortex through the pituitary gland. And cortisol, as we said above, selectively reduces the immune response, preventing excessive activation of the immune system, which can lead to damage to its own tissues (as happens in autoimmune diseases). Thus, all integrating systems of the body - nervous, immune, endocrine - during the fight against infection are combined into one functional system neuroimmunoendocrine.

The end of the twentieth century gave us another new area knowledge in which neurohormones play a central role - neuroendocrinology of behavior. I will give examples. One of the neurohormones, oxytocin, causes uterine contractions during childbirth. That's why synthetic analogues oxytocin is widely used clinically to stimulate labor activity. But oxytocin has another function: it is responsible for the maternal instinct. In rodents, after giving birth, the mother sometimes (it is not yet clear why) kills her offspring. But if such a female is given a sniff of oxytocin before giving birth, she becomes an exemplary mother, protecting her cubs.

Another neurohormone, corticoliberin (I have already mentioned it), is responsible for regulating the functions of the adrenal cortex. In addition, it turned out that corticoliberin also provokes the development depressive states. Its contents in cerebrospinal fluid in people suffering from depression, it is increased several times. It is not surprising that knockout mice that are insensitive to corticotropin hormones (lacking the receptor for this neurohormone in the brain) show amazing resistance to stress and do not seem to suffer from depression.

"Tomorrow". Now in the science of hormones there is an avalanche-like accumulation of new knowledge. However, this applies not only to endocrinology. And in order not to get “lost” in a gigantic heap of information, researchers are forced to narrow the scope of their interests, which inevitably leads to deepening isolation scientific directions from each other. I will not be original if I say that ultimately scientists will have to create some kind of general, integrative models of the functioning of the body, possibly based on mathematical and computer technologies. Otherwise, no one, even the most erudite specialist, will be able to see the complete picture.

More specifically, the use of neurohormones in clinical practice will increase. A person will probably receive new neurohormonal drugs that help with diseases of the immune system. There is, for example, such a neurohormone - somatostatin. Its main function in our body is associated with inhibition of the secretion of growth hormone (it has a rival partner - somatoliberin, which has the opposite effect). However, in addition to this, somatostatin has an amazing ability to influence the immune system, and its synthetic analogues have a brilliant prospect for clinical use autoimmune diseases(rheumatism, arthritis). And substances that are antagonists of another neurohormone, corticoliberin, are already undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of depressive conditions.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that endocrinology, which “grew up” from the 19th century, at the end of the 20th century gave a new branch - neuroendocrinology, which studies how the endocrine system is controlled by the brain. Several years ago, two new, amazing areas of knowledge appeared - neuroimmunoendocrinology and behavioral neuroendocrinology. Both directions have already found their ways of application in the clinic of diseases of the immune system and psychiatry. And what other new ideas will arise in the future - the future will show.

The adrenal glands are an important part of the endocrine system, along with the thyroid gland and germ cells. More than 40 different hormones involved in metabolism are synthesized here. One of critical systems The endocrine system regulates the functioning of the human body. It consists of the thyroid and pancreas, germ cells and adrenal glands. Each of these organs is responsible for the production of certain hormones.

What hormones do the adrenal glands secrete?

The adrenal glands are a paired gland located in the retroperitoneum slightly above the kidneys. The total weight of the organs is 7–10 g. The adrenal glands are surrounded by adipose tissue and renal fascia close to the upper pole of the kidney.

The shape of the organs is different - the right adrenal gland resembles a triangular pyramid, the left one looks like a crescent. The average length of the organ is 5 cm, width 3–4 cm, thickness – 1 cm. The color is yellow, the surface is lumpy.

Covered on top with a dense fibrous capsule, which is connected to the kidney capsule by numerous strands. The parenchyma of an organ consists of a cortex and a medulla, with the cortex surrounding the medulla.

They are 2 independent endocrine glands, they have different cellular composition, have different origins and perform different functions, despite the fact that they are combined into one organ.

It is interesting that the glands develop independently of each other. The cortical substance of the embryo begins to form at the 8th week of development, and the medulla only at 12–16 weeks.

IN cortical layer up to 30 corticosteroids are synthesized, which are otherwise called steroid hormones. And the adrenal glands secrete the following hormones, which divide them into 3 groups:

• glucocorticoids - cortisone, cortisol, corticosterone. Hormones affect carbohydrate metabolism and have an effect on inflammatory reactions;
• mineralocorticoids - aldosterone, deoxycorticosterone, they control water and mineral metabolism;
• sex hormones - androgens. They regulate sexual functions and influence sexual development.

Steroid hormones are quickly destroyed in the liver, turning into a water-soluble form, and are excreted from the body. Some of them can be obtained artificially. In medicine, they are actively used in the treatment of bronchial asthma, rheumatism, and joint ailments.

The medulla synthesizes catecholamines - norepinephrine and adrenaline, the so-called stress hormones secreted by the adrenal glands. In addition, peptides are produced here that regulate the activity of the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract: somatostatin, beta-enkephalin, vasoactive instinctual peptide.

Groups of hormones secreted by the adrenal glands

Brain matter

The medulla is located centrally in the adrenal gland and is formed by chromaffin cells. The organ receives the signal for the production of catecholamines from the preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. Thus medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic plexus, which, however, releases substances directly into the bloodstream, bypassing the synapse.

The half-life of stress hormones is 30 seconds. These substances are destroyed very quickly.

In general, the effect of hormones on human condition and behavior can be described using the theory of the rabbit and the lion. A person who has stressful situation little norepinephrine is synthesized, it reacts to danger like a rabbit - it experiences fear, turns pale, loses the ability to make decisions and assess the situation. A person whose norepinephrine release is high behaves like a lion - he experiences anger and rage, does not perceive danger and acts under the influence of the desire to suppress or destroy.

The formation of catecholamines is as follows: a certain external signal activates a stimulus acting on the brain, which causes excitation of the posterior nuclei of the hypothalamus. The latter is a signal for excitation of sympathetic centers in thoracic region spinal cord. From there, the signal travels through preganglionic fibers to the adrenal glands, where norepinephrine and adrenaline are synthesized. The hormones are then released into the blood.

The effect of stress hormones is based on the interaction with alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. And since the latter are present in almost all cells, including blood cells, the influence of catecholamines is wider than that of the sympathetic nervous system.

Adrenaline affects the human body as follows:

• increases heart rate and strengthens them;
• improves concentration, accelerates mental activity;
• provokes spasm small vessels and “unimportant” organs - skin, kidneys, intestines;
• accelerates metabolic processes, promotes rapid breakdown of fats and combustion of glucose. With short-term exposure, this helps to improve cardiac activity, but with long-term exposure it is fraught with severe exhaustion;
• increases the respiratory rate and increases the depth of entry - is actively used to relieve asthma attacks;
• reduces intestinal motility, but causes involuntary urination and defecation;
• Helps relax the uterus, reducing the likelihood of miscarriage.

The release of adrenaline into the blood often forces a person to perform heroic deeds unthinkable under normal conditions. However, it is also the reason panic attacks» – causeless attacks fear, accompanied by rapid heartbeat and shortness of breath.

General information about the hormone adrenaline

Norepinephrine is a precursor of adrenaline, its effect on the body is similar, but not the same:

• norepinephrine increases peripheral vascular resistance, and also increases both systolic and diastolic pressure, therefore norepinephrine is sometimes called the hormone of relief;
• the substance has a much stronger vasoconstrictor effect, but has much less effect on heart contractions;
• the hormone promotes contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus, which stimulates labor;
• has virtually no effect on the muscles of the intestines and bronchi.

The effects of norepinephrine and adrenaline are sometimes difficult to distinguish. Somewhat conventionally, the effect of hormones can be represented as follows: if a person, with a fear of heights, decides to go out onto the roof and stand on the edge, norepinephrine is produced in the body, which helps to carry out the intention. If such a person is forcibly tied to the edge of the roof, adrenaline works.

In the video about the main hormones of the adrenal glands and their functions:

Cortex

The cortex makes up 90% of the adrenal gland. It is divided into 3 zones, each of which synthesizes its own group of hormones:

• zona glomerulosa – the thinnest superficial layer;
• beam – middle layer;
• reticular zone – adjacent to the medulla.

This division can only be detected at the microscopic level, but the zones have anatomical differences and perform different functions.

Zona glomerulosa

Mineralocorticoids are formed in the zona glomerulosa. Their task is to regulate water-salt balance. Hormones enhance the absorption of sodium ions and reduce the absorption of potassium ions, which leads to an increase in the concentration of sodium ions in cells and intercellular fluid and, in turn, increases osmotic pressure. This ensures fluid retention in the body and increases blood pressure.

In general, mineralocorticoids increase the permeability of capillaries and serous membranes, which provokes the manifestation of inflammation. The most important ones include aldosterone, corticosterone and deoxycorticosterone.

Aldosterone increases the tone of vascular smooth muscles, which increases blood pressure. With a lack of hormone synthesis, hypotension develops, and with an excess, hypertension develops.

The synthesis of the substance is determined by the concentration of potassium and sodium ions in the blood: when the amount of sodium ions increases, the synthesis of the hormone stops, and the ions begin to be excreted in the urine. With an excess of potassium, aldosterone is produced in order to restore balance; the amount of hormone also affects the production of tissue fluid and blood plasma: when they increase, the secretion of aldosterone stops.

Regulation of the synthesis and secretion of the hormone is carried out according to a certain scheme: renin is produced in special cells of the afferent areolas of the kidney. It catalyzes the reaction of converting angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which then, under the influence of the enzyme, becomes angiotensin II. The latter stimulates the production of aldosterone.

Synthesis and secretion of the hormone aldesideron


Disturbances in the synthesis of renin or angiotensin, which is typical for various diseases kidneys, leads to excessive secretion of the hormone and is the cause of high blood pressure that is not amenable to conventional antihypertensive treatment.

• Corticosterone is also involved in the regulation of water-salt metabolism, but is much less active compared to aldosterone and is considered secondary. Corticosterone is produced in both the zona glomerulosa and the zona fasciculata and, in fact, is a glucocorticoid.
• Deoxycorticosterone is also a minor hormone, but in addition to participating in the restoration of water-salt balance, it increases endurance skeletal muscles. An artificially synthesized substance is used for medical purposes.

Beam zone

The most famous and significant in the group of glucocorticoids include cortisol and cortisone. Their value lies in their ability to stimulate the formation of glucose in the liver and suppress the consumption and use of the substance in extrahepatic tissues. Thus, plasma glucose levels increase. In a healthy human body, the effect of glucocorticoids is compensated by the synthesis of insulin, which reduces the amount of glucose in the blood. When this balance is disturbed, metabolism is disrupted: if there is insulin deficiency, then the action of cortisol leads to hyperglycemia, and if there is a deficiency of glucocorticoids, glucose production decreases and insulin hypersensitivity appears.

In hungry animals, the synthesis of glucocorticoids is accelerated in order to increase the conversion of glycogen into glucose and provide the body with nutrition. In the well-fed, production is maintained at a certain level, since against a normal background of cortisol, all key metabolic processes are stimulated, while others manifest themselves as efficiently as possible.

Hormones indirectly affect lipid metabolism: excess cortisol and cortisone leads to the breakdown of fat - lipolysis, in the extremities, and to the accumulation of the latter on the torso and face. In general, glucocorticoids reduce the breakdown of fat tissue for glucose synthesis, which is one of the unfortunate features of hormonal treatment.

Also, an excess of hormones of this group does not allow leukocytes to accumulate in the area of ​​inflammation and even enhances it. As a result, people with this type of disease - diabetes mellitus, for example, have poor healing of wounds, sensitivity to infections, and so on. IN bone tissue hormones suppress cell growth, leading to osteoporosis.

Lack of glucocorticoids leads to impaired excretion of water and its excessive accumulation.

• Cortisol is the most powerful of the hormones of this group, synthesized from 3 hydroxylases. In the blood it is found in free form or bound to proteins. Of the 17-hydroxycorticoids in plasma, cortisol and its metabolic products account for 80%. The remaining 20% ​​is cortisone and 11-descosycortisol. The secretion of cortisol is determined by the release of ACTH - its synthesis occurs in the pituitary gland, which, in turn, is provoked by impulses coming from different parts of the nervous system. The synthesis of the hormone is affected by emotional and physical state, fear, inflammation, circadian cycle and so on.
• Cortisone is formed by the oxidation of the 11th hydroxyl group of cortisol. It is produced in small quantity, and performs the same function: stimulates the synthesis of glucose from glycogen and suppresses lymphoid organs.

Synthesis and functions of glucocorticoids

Mesh zone

Androgens, sex hormones, are produced in the zona reticularis of the adrenal glands. Their effect is noticeably weaker than testosterone, but it is of considerable importance, especially in the female body. The point is that in female body dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione are the main male sex hormones - synthesized from dehydroepindrosterone required amount testosterone.

In the male body, these hormones are of minimal importance, however, with severe obesity, due to the conversion of androstenedione into estrogen, they lead to feminization: promotes body fat characteristic of the female body.

The synthesis of estrogens from androgens occurs in peripheral adipose tissue. In postmenopause in the female body, this method becomes the only way to obtain sex hormones.

Androgens are involved in the formation and support of sexual desire, stimulate hair growth in dependent areas, and stimulate the process of formation of some secondary sexual characteristics. The maximum concentration of androgens occurs during the puberty period - from 8 to 14 years.

The adrenal glands are an extremely important part of the endocrine system. Organs produce more than 40 different hormones that regulate carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism and participate in many reactions.

Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex: