It is known that enzymes are hormones and vitamins. Vitamins, enzymes and hormones and their role in the body. Violations due to their deficiency and excess. Biologically active substances include: enzymes, vitamins and hormones. These are vital and necessary connections,

Hormones are biologically active substances, they are produced endocrine glands and release them immediately into the blood in extremely small doses, but at the same time have a colossal effect on the processes occurring in the body.

They affect life activity internal organs, changing chemical reactions by inhibiting or activating enzymatic processes, for example, heartbeat, glucose deposition, growth depend on these secretions muscle tissue and others no less important processes. In total, about 30 types of human and animal secretions are now known.

What are enzymes responsible for?

Enzymes are globular proteins that are synthesized by living cells. They are needed to help almost all processes on which human life depends. Some of them make up the cell membrane, others act inside cells, and others are produced by the same cells and function in intercellular space, getting there. There are several hundred of them in one cell. They become bio catalysts chemical reactions.

If they all disappear, then all processes in the body will proceed so slowly that life simply cannot exist. There are two types of globular proteins: synthesis reactions (anabolic) and breakdown reactions (catabolic). It often happens that when converting substances into others, several of these proteins are involved at once. This sequence is called the metabolic pathway.

The main properties of enzymes:

• increasing the speed of impact;
• they are not consumed in the reaction;
• the presence of enzymes does not affect the interaction products and their properties in any way;
• the activity of these proteins is influenced by their concentration, level alkaline balance, pressure and temperature;
• proteins change activation energy so that a reaction can occur;
• globular proteins do not affect the temperature at which the interaction occurs.

For the normal functioning of the main part of globular proteins, coenzymes or, as they are also called, cofactors are required. This is the active part of proteins that helps them work. Coenzymes are almost all vitamins and organic molecules.

There are globular proteins that are constantly produced by the body, and there are those that enter the body only with food intake. A lack of certain proteins can cause illness.

Their high specificity is explained unique shape a molecule that exactly matches the substrate molecule (the substance that the enzyme attacks). This is called the "key and lock" hypothesis. Research has shown that the substrate is capable of changing it internal structure, which in turn changes shape, and this gives it the opportunity to perform its functions as efficiently as possible.

The influence of enzymes and hormones on the body

Each enzyme affects only one single reaction. This is due to the fact that the molecule of any of the proteins geometrically absolutely exactly complements the molecule of the substrates, the reacting substance. Many proteins are found on cell membranes. Globulin proteins, accelerating one action, almost unchanged, immediately begin to accelerate another. Some of the secretions are also protein in nature.

Hormones affect organs or cells while located at a considerable distance from them. After they cause a response, hormones, unlike enzymes, are immediately destroyed. Secretions act more slowly than proteins, but at the same time their functions differ.

Globular proteins are needed for protein production, nutrients absorption, energy metabolism and muscle contraction. They also support nervous activity, reproduction, remove certain substances from the body and many other functions.

There are substances that inhibit the action of enzymes, being inhibitors. These substances themselves combine with substrates, replacing proteins and negating their effect, that is, they inhibit competitively. Others cause denaturation of the enzymatic protein. These are non-competitive inhibitors.

The functions of hormones directly depend on which gland produces them. The pituitary gland, located in the brain, is responsible for the synthesis of absolutely all hormones. Moreover, the same pituitary gland is responsible for the production of growth hormone. Thyroid affects basal metabolism and thermoregulation. The pancreas, in turn, produces insulin, which normalizes blood sugar levels. Thymus or thymus produces immunity.

The parathyroid glands, which are paired, produce a secretion that controls calcium. Metabolism directly depends on adrenal hormones, and the secretions of the gonads or sex glands affect puberty. And these are not all the substances produced by the body.

conclusions

Enzymes and hormones cannot exist without each other. An imbalance in some causes problems in other organs and systems of the whole body. These are vital components. In small quantities they ensure the full functioning of all organs and systems. Without their participation, not a single process in the body can take place.

Together with enzymes and hormones, vitamins also actively act on the body. These are complex organic substances, they are found in food in small concentrations. They are not used as a source of energy, but are no less necessary for life. A lack of vitamins is called vitamin deficiency. You can get rid of it if you eat foods that contain necessary for the body vitamin A.

The human body is a unique mechanism in which every second happens great amount various chemical processes. All processes are interconnected and ensure continuous normal work human body. Metabolism, synthesis, cell regeneration, self-healing and many other reactions are carried out thanks to the supply of vital substances - minerals, enzymes, phospholipids, vitamins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids. All substances take part in biochemical reactions and normalize the functioning of internal organs and systems.

To speed up chemical reactions are necessary. Enzymes are protein molecules that speed up all chemical reactions. These are catalysts that promote the digestion and breakdown of fats, proteins, muscle contraction and conduction. nerve impulses. They also take part in metabolic processes and synthesis. Enzymes play a colossal role for the human body. These substances perform a control function in all biochemical processes. Without them, the existence of any living organism is completely impossible.

Enzymes and hormones

Hormones enter the blood along with enzymes. They also play an important role in all processes that occur in the human body. The main role of hormones is to properly adjust the functioning of the body. They are necessary to maintain homeostasis and regulate functions such as metabolism, growth, development, response to change environment. Hormones, like enzymes, take part in chemical reactions. Thanks to hormones in the body, cellular activity is regulated and bones are strengthened.

Most act through enzyme systems, being their activators. They may be groups of enzymes. The close functional relationship between hormones and enzymes is manifested in almost all chemical processes. Despite the commonality of biological regulators, there are distinctive features of these substances. Enzymes exhibit their activity in the cells where they are synthesized. Hormones, in turn, are carried by the bloodstream to the cells and tissues that they stimulate. The biochemical function of hormones is much weaker than the functionality of enzymes. But the result of the action of hormones is more noticeable than the bioeffect of enzymes.

Deficiency of hormones and enzymes in the body

The lack of vital substances negatively affects the performance of the entire body. With a lack of enzymes, the metabolic processes in the body and all chemical reactions. With a lack of hormones, significant disruptions in the functioning of the human body also occur. In both cases, deficiency of important substances provokes serious illnesses – diabetes, fungal diseases, blood diseases, allergic diseases, malfunctions thyroid gland etc.

Lack of and can be either congenital or acquired. Congenital form transmitted in utero through heredity, maternal diseases, intrauterine consequences(pathologies, injuries). The acquired form can develop at any age. The lack of vital substances can affect various diseases, poor nutrition, bad habits.

Every person, regardless of age, should take care of their health. If it is not possible to replenish the body with the necessary substances naturally (by consuming products containing them), they will come to the rescue. Dietary supplements are widely used in medical practice. These are universal food additives that are used for medicinal and preventive purposes.

Vitamins are complex organic substances found in food in very small quantities. They do not serve as a source of energy, but are absolutely necessary for the normal functioning of the body. A deficiency of one or another vitamin leads to metabolic disorders; this state called vitamin deficiency. It can be terminated by adding the right vitamin into the diet.

The most important vitamins for humans are vitamins A, B, C, D, K and others.

Hormones - biologically active substances, produced by the endocrine glands and released directly into the blood. Hormones affect the functioning of the organs for which they are intended, changing biochemical reactions by activating or inhibiting enzymatic processes. There are about 30 hormones produced by human and mammalian organisms.

Enzymes are globular proteins synthesized by living cells. There are hundreds of enzymes in every cell. They help carry out biochemical reactions by acting as catalysts. Without them, reactions in the cell would proceed too slowly and could not support life. Enzymes are divided into anabolic (synthesis reactions) and catabolic (decomposition reactions). Often, several enzymes are involved in the process of converting one substance into another; this sequence of reactions is called metabolic pathway.

Main properties of enzymes:

Increase reaction speed;

Not consumed in the reaction;

Their presence does not affect the properties of the reaction products;

Enzyme activity depends on pH, temperature, pressure and concentration;

Enzymes change the activation energy at which a reaction can occur;

Enzymes do not significantly change the temperature at which the reaction occurs.

The high specificity of the enzyme is explained by the special shape of its molecule, which exactly matches the molecule of the substrate (the substance attacked by the enzyme). This hypothesis is called the "key and lock" hypothesis. In the mid-20th century, research showed that a substrate could cause changes in the structure of the enzyme; the enzyme changes its shape, which allows it to most effectively perform its function.

Many enzymes for efficient work non-protein components called cofactors are required. Such substances may be inorganic ions that force enzymes into a form that promotes the enzymatic reaction, prosthetic groups (flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), heme) that occupy a position in which they can effectively promote the reaction, and coenzymes (NAD, NADP, ATP).

Some substances can slow down enzymatic reactions by acting as inhibitors. At the same time, they combine with the substrate themselves, taking the place of the enzyme and negating the enzymatic effect ( competitive inhibition), or cause denaturation of the enzymatic protein ( noncompetitive inhibition).

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STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MARI EL

SCHOOL OF OLYMPIC RESERVE

Independent work

in biology

"Vitamins, enzymes, hormones and their role in the body"

Completed: student11groups

GuryevEugeneGennadievich

I checked: ZeynalovaD. M.

Yoshkar-Ola2012.

Content

• I. Introduction
• II. Enzymes
• 1. History of discovery
• 2. Properties of enzymes
• III. Vitamins
• 1. General characteristics
• 2. Classification of vitamins
• IV. Hormones
• 1. General characteristics
• 3. Properties of hormones
• 4. Use of vitamins
• V. Conclusion
• Literature

I. Introduction

TO biologically active substances relate: enzymes,vitaminsAndhormones. These are vital and necessary compounds, each of which plays an irreplaceable and very important role in the life of the body.

Digestion and absorption food products occurs with the participation enzymes. Synthesis and breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, hormones and other substances in the tissues of the body is also a set of enzymatic reactions. However, any functional manifestation of a living organism - breathing, muscle contraction, neuropsychic activity, reproduction, etc. - are also directly related to the action of the corresponding enzyme systems. In other words, without enzymes no life. Their significance for the human body is not limited to normal physiology. Many human diseases are based on disturbances in enzymatic processes.

Vitamins can be classified as a group biologically active connections , exerting their effect on metabolism in negligible concentrations. This organic compounds different chemical structures that are necessary for the normal functioning of almost all processes in the body. They increase the body’s resistance to various extreme factors and infectious diseases, contribute to the neutralization and removal of toxic substances, etc.

Hormones - these are products internal secretion, which are produced by special glands or individual cells, are released into the blood and distributed throughout the body, normally causing a certain biological effect.

Sami hormones do not directly affect any cell reactions. Only by contacting a certain receptor, unique to it, a certain reaction is caused.

Often hormones They also name some other metabolic products formed in all [eg. carbon dioxide] or only in some [eg. acetylcholine] tissues that have, to a greater or lesser extent, physiological activity and take part in the regulation of animal body functions. However, such a broad interpretation of the concept " hormones" deprives it of any qualitative specificity. The term " hormones" Only those active metabolic products that are formed in special education - glands internal secretion.

II. Enzymes

1. History of discovery

All life processes are based on thousands of chemical reactions. They go through the body without use. high temperature and pressure, i.e. in mild conditions. Substances that are oxidized in human and animal cells burn quickly and efficiently, enriching the body with energy and building material. But the same substances can be stored for years both in canned [isolated from air] form and in air in the presence of oxygen. Opportunity fast digestion products in a living organism is carried out due to the presence of special biological catalysts in cells - enzymes. Term " enzyme" (fermentum in Latin means “fermented”, “leaven”) was proposed by the Dutch scientist Van Helmont at the beginning of the 18th century. This is what he called an unknown agent that takes an active part in the process of alcoholic fermentation.

The experimental study of enzymatic processes began in the 18th century, when the French naturalist R. Reaumur conducted experiments to determine the mechanism of food digestion in the stomach of birds of prey. He gave birds of prey to swallow pieces of meat enclosed in a drilled metal tube that was attached to a thin chain. A few hours later, the tube was pulled out of the bird’s stomach and it turned out that the meat had partially dissolved. Since it was in a tube and could not be subjected to mechanical grinding, it was natural to assume that it was affected by gastric juice. This assumption was confirmed by the Italian naturalist L. Spallanzani. L. Spallanzani placed a piece of sponge into a metal tube that birds of prey swallowed. After removing the tube from the sponge, the gastric juice was squeezed out. Then the meat was heated in this juice, and it completely “dissolved” in it.

Much later (1836) T. Schwann discovered in gastric juice enzyme pepsin(from the Greek word pepto - “cook”) under the influence of which meat is digested in the stomach. These works served as the beginning of the study of so-called proteolytic enzymes.

2. Properties of enzymes

Being proteins, enzymes have all their properties. At the same time, biocatalysts are characterized by a number of specific qualities, also resulting from their protein nature. These qualities distinguish enzymes from conventional catalysts. This includes the thermolability of enzymes, the dependence of their action on the pH value of the environment, specificity and, finally, susceptibility to the influence of activators and inhibitors.

Thermal lability enzymes is explained by the fact that temperature, on the one hand, affects the protein part of the enzyme, leading to protein denaturation and a decrease in catalytic function at too high values, and on the other hand, it affects the reaction rate of the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex and all subsequent stages transformation of the substrate, which leads to increased catalysis.

The dependence of the catalytic activity of the enzyme on temperature is expressed by a typical curve. Up to a certain temperature (on average up to 50°C), the catalytic activity increases, and for every 10°C the rate of substrate conversion increases approximately 2 times. At the same time, the amount of inactivated enzyme gradually increases due to denaturation of its protein part. At temperatures above 50°C, the denaturation of the enzyme protein increases sharply and, although the rate of substrate conversion reactions continues to increase, the activity of the enzyme, expressed as the amount of substrate converted, decreases.

III. Vitamins

1. General characteristics

Vitamins(from Latin YITA - life) - a group of organic compounds of diverse chemical nature, necessary for the nutrition of humans and animals and having great value for normal metabolism and vital functions of the body, vitamins perform certain catalytic functions in the body and are required in negligible quantities compared to the main ones nutrients(proteins, fats, carbohydrates and mineral salts.)

When supplied with food, vitamins are absorbed (assimilated) by the body, forming various derivative compounds (ester, amide, nucleotide, etc.) which, in turn, can combine with proteins. Along with assimilation, processes of decomposition (dissimilation) continuously occur in the body. Vitamins, Moreover, decomposition products (and sometimes slightly changed vitamin molecules) are released into the external environment.

Diseases that arise due to the lack of certain vitamins in food are called avitaminosis. If a disease occurs due to the lack of several vitamins, it is called multivitaminosis. However, typical in their clinical picture Vitamin deficiencies are now quite rare. More often you have to deal with a relative lack of a vitamin; This disease is called hypovitaminosis. If the diagnosis is made correctly and in a timely manner, then vitamin deficiencies and especially hypovitaminosis can be easily cured by introducing the appropriate vitamins into the body.

Excessive introduction of certain vitamins into the body can cause a disease called hypervitaminosis.

Currently, many changes in metabolism during vitamin deficiency are considered as a consequence of disturbances in enzymatic systems.

2. Classification of vitamins

Vitamins divided into two large groups: vitamins solubleVfats, and vitamins , solubleVwater. Each of these groups contains a large number of various vitamins, which are usually denoted by the letters of the Latin alphabet. It should be noted that the order of these letters does not correspond to their usual arrangement in the alphabet and is not entirely

corresponds to the historical sequence of discovery of vitamins.

In the given classification of vitamins, the most characteristic biological properties of a given vitamin are indicated in brackets - its ability to prevent the development of a particular disease. Usually the name of the disease is preceded by the prefix "anti", indicating that this vitamin prevents or eliminates this disease.

1 . VITAMINS, ASD T VOIBLE IN FATS .

Vitamin A (antixerophthalic).

Vitamin D (antirachitic).

Vitamin E (reproduction vitamin).

Vitamin K (antihemorrhagic)

2 . VITAMINS, RAS T VOIBLE IN WATER .

Vitamin B1 (antineuritis).

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin).

Vitamin PP (antipellagritic).

Vitamin B6 (anti-dermatitis).

Pantothene (anti-dermatitis factor).

Biotite (vitamin H, growth factor for fungi,

yeast and bacteria, antiseborrheic).

Inositol. Para-aminobenzoic acid

(bacterial growth factor and pigmentation factor).

Folic acid (anti-anemic vitamin, growth vitamin for chickens and bacteria).

Vitamin B12 (anti-anemic vitamin).

Vitamin B15 (pangamic acid).

Vitamin C (antiscorbutic).

Vitamin P (permeability vitamin).

Many also consider choline and

unlimited fatty acid with two and a large number double bonds. All of the above water-soluble vitamins, with the exception of inositol and vitamins C and P, contain nitrogen in their molecule, and they are often combined into one complex of vitamin groups.

ROLE IN EXCHANGE SUBSTANCES.

Apparently, the physiological significance of vitamin C is closely related to its redox properties. It is possible that this should also explain the changes in carbohydrate metabolism with scurvature, consisting in the gradual disappearance of glycogen from the liver and initially increased, and then reduced content blood sugar.

IV. Hormones

1. General characteristics

Hormones- specific substances that are produced in the body and regulate its development and functioning. Translated from Greek, hormones mean moving, exciting. Hormones are produced by special organs - glands internal secretion(or endocrine glands). These organs are so named because the products of their work are not released into the external environment (as, for example, in the sweat or digestive glands), but are “picked up” by the bloodstream and distributed throughout the body. “True” hormones (as opposed to local regulatory substances) are released into the blood and act on almost all organs, including those significantly removed from the place of hormone production.

Biologically active substances formed in organs and tissues other than the endocrine glands are usually called “parahormones”, “histohormones”, “ biogenic stimulants" The participation of these substances in the regulation of body functions was first pointed out by the Russian physiologist V.Ya. Danilevsky (in 1899 at the 7th Congress of the Society of Russian Doctors in memory of N.I. Pirogov). The term " hormones" was first used by W. Bayliss and E. Starling in 1902. In relation to the specific secretion product of the mucous membrane of the upper intestine - the so-called. secretin, stimulating the secretion of pancreatic juice. However, secretin should be classified as a histohormone.

Biologically active metabolic products are also formed in plants, but classifying these substances as “hormones” is completely incorrect.

Invertebrate animals do not have a mature endocrine system (i.e., functionally interconnected endocrine glands). Thus, in insectivores, only isolated glandular formations were found, in which, apparently, the production of hormonal substances (for example, causing molting, pupation, etc.) occurs. annelids There is only a rudiment of the adrenal system in the form of chromaffin cells, and in the transitional forms from invertebrates to vertebrates - ascidians (tunicates) - there are homologues of the pituitary gland and thyroid gland. Endocrine system with specific physiological functions reaches full development only in vertebrates and humans.

2. Variants of hormone action

Currently, the following options for the action of hormones are distinguished:

1) hormonal, or hemocrine, i.e. action at a considerable distance from the place of formation;

2) isocrine, or local, when a chemical substance synthesized in one cell has an effect on a cell located in close contact with the first, and the release of this substance is carried out into the interstitial fluid and blood;

3) neurocrine, or neuroendocrine (synaptic and non-synaptic), action, when the hormone, released from nerve endings, performs the function of a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator, i.e. a substance that changes (usually enhances) the action of a neurotransmitter;

4) paracrine - a type of isocrine action, but in this case the hormone produced in one cell enters intercellular fluid and affects a number of cells located in close proximity;

5) juxtacrine - a type of paracrine action, when the hormone does not enter the intercellular fluid, and the signal is transmitted through the plasma membrane of another cell located nearby;

6) autocrine action, when a hormone released from a cell affects the same cell, changing its functional activity;

7) solinocrine action, when a hormone from one cell enters the lumen of the duct and thus reaches another cell, exerting a specific effect on it (for example, some gastrointestinal hormones).

The synthesis of protein hormones, like other proteins, is under genetic control, and typical mammalian cells express genes that encode 5,000 to 10,000 different proteins, and some highly differentiated cells express up to 50,000 proteins. Any protein synthesis begins with transposition of DNA segments, then transcription, post-transcriptional processing, translation, post-translational processing and modification. Many polypeptide hormones are synthesized in the form of large precursor prohormones (proinsulin, proglucagon, proopiomelanocortin, etc.). The conversion of prohormones into hormones occurs in the Golgi apparatus.

3. Properties of hormones

Of particular interest is the body’s ability to retain hormones in an inactivated (inactive) state.

Hormones, being specific products of the endocrine glands, do not remain stable, but change structurally and functionally during the metabolic process. The products of hormone transformation may have new biocatalytic properties and play a certain role in the process of life: for example, the oxidation products of adrenaline - dehydroadrenaline, adrenochrome, as shown by A.M. Utevsky, are peculiar catalysts of internal exchange.

The work of hormones is carried out under control and in close dependence with the nervous system. Role nervous system in the processes of hormone formation was first proven at the beginning of the 20th century. Russian scientist N.A. Mislavsky, who studied nervous regulation activity of the endocrine glands. They discovered a nerve that enhances the secretion of thyroid hormone; to his student M.N. Cheboksarov (1910) made a similar discovery regarding the adrenal hormone. I.P. Pavlov and his students showed the enormous regulatory significance of the cerebral cortex in hormone formation.

The specificity of the physiological action of hormones is relative and depends on the state of the organism as a whole. Great importance has a change in the composition of the environment in which the hormone acts, in particular, an increase or decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, sulfhydryl groups, potassium and calcium salts, the content of amino acids and other metabolic products that affect the reactivity of nerve endings and the relationship of hormones with enzyme systems. Thus, the effect of the adrenal cortex hormone on the kidneys and cardiovascular system is largely determined by the content of sodium chloride in the blood. The ratio between the amount of active and inactive forms of adrenaline is determined by the content ascorbic acid in tissues.

It has been proven that hormones are closely dependent on conditions external environment, the influence of which is mediated by receptors of the nervous system. Irritation of pain, temperature, visual and other receptors affects the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland and other glands. Components of food can serve, on the one hand, as a source of structural material for the construction of hormones (iodine, amino acids, sterols), and on the other hand - by changing internal environment and influence on interoceptors, influence the function of glands that form hormones. Thus, it has been established that carbohydrates predominantly affect the release of insulin; proteins - for the formation of pituitary hormones, sex hormones, adrenal hormones, thyroid hormones; vitamin C - on the function of the thyroid gland and adrenal gland, etc. Some chemical substances, introduced into the body, can specifically disrupt hormone formation.

4. Use of vitamins

In medical practice hormonal drugs used to treat diseases of the endocrine glands, in which the function of the latter is reduced. For example, insulin is used to treat diabetes mellitus(diabetes).

In addition to treating diseases of the endocrine glands, hormones and hormonal preparations are also used for other diseases: insulin - for pathological exhaustion, liver diseases, schizophrenia; thyroidin - for some forms of obesity; male sex hormone (testosterone) - for breast cancer in women, female sex hormone (or sinestrol and stilbestrol) - for hypertrophy and prostate cancer in men, etc.

vitamin enzyme hormone metabolism

V. Conclusion

Biologically active substances: enzymes, vitamins and hormones are vital and necessary components of the human body. Being in small quantities, they ensure the full functioning of organs and systems. Not a single process in the body can occur without the participation of certain enzymes. These protein catalysts are capable of not only carrying out the most amazing transformations of substances, but also doing so extremely quickly and easily, at ordinary temperatures and pressures.

Literature

1) General biology. (Textbook for colleges) Undered.Konstantinov IN.M. ( 2008, 256 pp.)

2) General biology. Lecture notes. Kozlova E.A.,Kurbatova N.WITH. ( 2007, 160 pp.)

3) Wikipedia.ru

4) http://yandex.ru/yandsearch? text=%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%r=213

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