Methods of clinical research of animals. General and special methods of clinical research

In healthy animals, vesicular or pulmonary respiration, physiological bronchial breathing in the tops of the lungs and laryngotracheal breathing in the larynx and trachea.

In pathological processes, a number of additional sounds may occur in the bronchi, alveoli of the lungs, pleura and pleural cavity, such as are not found in the norm.

Identification and differentiation of the main and additional noises that occur during pathology gives an idea of ​​the physical state of the respiratory organs and often of their functional state. Changes in the functioning of the respiratory organs during pathology are sometimes so significant that they do not cause difficulties in their identification and diagnostic assessment. It should, however, be taken into account that when auscultating the respiratory organs, different animals have their own characteristics and difficulties.

Auscultation technique. For direct auscultation, the animal's chest is covered with a towel. A towel is necessary not only for hygienic reasons, but also because it partly eliminates the noise of wool rubbing. To protect yourself from possible damage and reduce the movement of the animal, its head must be fixed, and in restless animals it is recommended to raise the thoracic limb.

Study of the left half chest performed with the right ear, and auscultation of the right half with the left. In this case, the specialist stands facing the animal’s head, and only when auscultating the posterior parts of the lung can he stand facing the animal’s rear. In order to create closer contact, as well as for self-defense purposes, the appropriate hand is placed on the withers or back of the animal and held during the entire examination. In small animals, they usually stand behind the animal; this allows, during auscultation, to compare the auscultatory phenomena of both sides. With unilateral damage to the lungs and bronchi, this is of great practical importance.

Auscultation is best done in a closed, small room with a soft floor. Auscultation on the street, in common stables and barns is greatly hampered by extraneous rustling noises, and in the summer by insects that disturb the animals.

Despite the fact that the lungs are adjacent to the animal’s chest wall throughout, auscultation is possible only in places less covered by muscles. Parts of the lung, covered with a scapula and powerful muscles of the shoulder, give sounds either sharply weakened, or they are not heard at all. This is especially pronounced in large animals, in which, normally, breathing on the chest is much weaker than in small animals. This encourages auscultation of those parts of the chest where sound phenomena are more pronounced, and then move on to areas where they are less intense and hard to hear.

In the horse, auscultation of the lungs begins with the middle section of the chest, located directly behind the shoulder blade. After listening to this area, they proceed to the study of the mid-posterior chest, then auscultate the upper-middle and upper-posterior segments in turn. Next, the lower-posterior section of the lung is examined. The sections of the lung, hidden under massive muscles, are examined at the end and, often, after comparing the right and left sides. In cattle, the study is carried out in the same order, although it must be said that auscultation through the scapula is much easier than in the horse. In cattle, in addition, the prescapular region is available for auscultation. Examination of this area provides insight into the condition of the apexes of the lungs. These departments often turn out to be the site of the development of tuberculous and peripneumonic processes. The area of ​​the oscultation in the prescapular region can be expanded by abducting the leg back. In small animals, all auscultations are available lung areas with the only difference being that in some places the breath sounds are heard better, while in others they are somewhat weaker.

2-3 phases of breathing are heard, and if no deviations from the norm are found, then they proceed to listening to another area. In case of detection of deviations from normal respiratory noise, it is necessary to establish the nature of these deviations. To do this, you can compare the breath noise with neighboring areas and with homologous points on the opposite side of the chest.

If breathing cannot be heard or is heard very weakly, it is recommended to resort to increased breathing. In a horse, this can be achieved by reining, running on a line or closing the nostrils, turning off breathing for a while. In cattle, increased breathing can be achieved by covering the nostrils with a towel, hands, or using a Routman clamp. This technique manages to cause an increase in respiratory noise and correctly evaluate the changes detected during auscultation.

During auscultation, it is necessary to establish the intensity of respiratory sounds, their properties, and if there are pathological sounds, find out their nature and location.

All noises detected on the chest from the lungs are divided into main and additional ones. The main breathing sounds include vesicular and physiological bronchial and laryngeal breathing; Additional noises are divided into bronchopulmonary and extrapulmonary. Bronchopulmonary include dry and moist rales, crepitating rales, crepitus, bronchial pathological breathing, amphoric breathing and the noise of a falling drop. Extrapulmonary, or pleural, in turn, are divided into pleural friction noise, splashing noise and pulmonary fistula noise.

General methods are divided into inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. They are called general because they are used in the study of almost every patient, regardless of the nature of the disease.

Inspection [lat. inspectare – look, observe] is carried out with the naked eye in good lighting or using reflectors, endoscopic devices. The inspection can be group and individual, general and local, external and internal.

Group examination is carried out during the study large quantity animals and, with its help, identify sick or suspicious individuals for further comprehensive examination. Each sick animal admitted for treatment is subjected to an individual examination. A general inspection is carried out on the left and right, front and back, and, if possible, from above. At the same time, the habit, the condition of the hair, skin, the presence of surface damage, and the symmetry of various parts of the body are determined. Local examination allows you to examine areas of localization of the disease process and can be external or internal (using lighting devices).

Palpation [lat. palpatio – palpation]. The palpation method is based on touch. A study is carried out first on healthy areas of the body, and then on the affected ones. In this case, palpation should not cause pain to the animal or resemble tickling. There are superficial and deep palpation.

Superficial examination of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, joints, tendons and ligaments. By firmly applying the palm of the hand, one can establish, for example, the temperature and humidity of tissues, assess the state of the heartbeat, and the presence of tangible noises. The consistency and tenderness of the tissues is determined by pressing the fingertips with increasing force until the animal responds. By stroking the palm, the character of the surface is established, and with the fingers, the shape and integrity of the bones and joints are determined. By gathering the skin into a fold, its elasticity is determined and areas of increased pain sensitivity are identified.

Deep palpation examines the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavity by determining their location, size, shape, consistency, and pain. Deep palpation can be external and internal. Deep external include:

Penetrating, when you press with your fingers or fist on abdominal wall and examine a specific organ, such as the liver, scar, etc.

Bimanual, i.e. with both hands, when it is possible to grasp the organ and determine its condition. It is most informative when studying small animals, foals and calves.

Push-like or balloting, when the pushes carried out on one side of the abdominal wall are caught by the palm of the other side. In this case, it is possible to detect the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity and establish the presence of a fetus in the uterus.

Deep internal palpation is performed in large animals through the rectum (rectal examination) to obtain data on the condition of the organs located in the pelvic and abdominal cavities.

Percussion [lat. percussio – tapping] – research method to determine condition and topography internal organs by the sound obtained by tapping the surface of the body with a hammer or fingers. Applying a blow to the surface of the body causes oscillatory movements of superficial and deep-lying tissues, which are perceived by the researcher as sound. It is advisable to carry out percussion in a closed, small room in silence. There are direct and mediocre, as well as digital and instrumental percussion.

Direct percussion is carried out with the tip of one or two (index and middle) fingers bent in the second phalanx. The blows are applied directly to the surface being examined. The sound is weak and unclear. Therefore, this type of percussion is used only when studying air cavities limited by bones (frontal, maxillary sinuses). Sometimes these cavities are tapped by applying gentle blows with the butt of a percussion hammer.

With mediocre percussion, blows are applied not to the surface under study, but to a finger or pessimeter pressed against the skin. In this case, the sound is louder and clearer, since it consists of a blow to a finger or plessimeter, vibrations of the chest or abdominal wall and a column of air located in the organ being studied.

Small animals and young animals are studied using mediocre digital percussion. The index or middle finger of the left hand is placed firmly on the skin, and the fingers right hand deliver jerky blows.

Mediocre instrumental percussion is carried out in large animals using a plessimeter and a hammer of various sizes and shapes. The pleximeter is tightly applied to the area of ​​the body being examined. The hammer is held with the index finger and thumb of the other hand without pinching the end of the handle. The blows are applied perpendicularly to the plessimeter, and they should be paired, short and abrupt.

For topographic percussion, the blows should be of medium or weak force, and the hammer should be held slightly on the plessimeter. The research is carried out, as a rule, along auxiliary lines.

When percussing to establish pathological changes in organs and tissues, tapping is carried out with strong, short and abrupt blows. The pleximeter is moved in the area of ​​projection of the organ onto the surface of the body from top to bottom and from front to back.

Auscultation [lat. auscultatio – auscultation] – a method of studying internal organs by listening and evaluating the sounds produced during their work. Auscultation should be carried out whenever possible indoors and in complete silence. Listening is carried out directly with the ear or using special instruments.

When listening directly, the ear is applied to the animal’s body covered with a sheet, and safety precautions must be strictly observed. In this way, large animals can be auscultated in a standing position. Listening to small and large lying animals is quite difficult.

Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or stethophonendoscopes. These tools create a closed sound system, making sounds perceived louder and more distinct. Listening begins from the center of the projection of the organ onto the surface of the body (when auscultating the lung - in the middle of the percussion triangle behind the scapula, the heart - at the place of greatest severity of the cardiac impulse), and then sequentially evaluate sounds in other areas.

Thermometry [Greek. thermos – warm + metreo – measure] – a method based on measuring the body temperature of an animal. Thermometry is mandatory when examining sick or suspected animals. It is carried out using thermometers of various designs (mercury, electric, recording infrared radiation of the body).

IN veterinary practice They mainly use the maximum veterinary mercury thermometer with a division scale from 34 to 44°C (the medical one has a division scale of up to 42°C). They measure the body temperature of animals in the rectum (in birds - in the cloaca) for 5-7 minutes. After each examination, the thermometer must be cleaned and disinfected.

Special (instrumental) methods require the use of various instruments. Among the methods of this group in veterinary practice, the following are most often used:

Endoscopy is a method of visual examination of abdominal and tubular organs devices with optics and electric lighting. The method finds more and more wide application for animal research, especially after the advent of fiber-optic flexible endoscopes.

Probing is a method of examining channels and cavities with special rubber or other (plastic, polyvinyl chloride) tubes called probes. They are administered to animals through the oral cavity or nasal passages. Probes are also used to examine wound canals, fistulas, abscess cavities, etc. Probing allows you to determine the patency of the organ, the presence foreign bodies, and also obtain contents, such as the stomach. In some cases, probes are used with therapeutic purpose– for extracting metal foreign objects from mesh and scar in cattle, restoration of esophageal patency, gastric lavage.

Catheterization is carried out with special flexible or rigid tubes - catheters made of various materials. Thus, when examining the urinary organs, catheterization is used to establish patency urethra, get urine, wash bladder etc.

Graphic methods involve obtaining a document, this can be a graph, photograph, radiograph, etc. Rhinography (recording a stream of exhaled air) and pneumography (recording respiratory movements of the chest) make it possible to determine the frequency of respiratory movements in an animal, their strength, and rhythm, which is important for recognizing shortness of breath. Gastrography and rumenography are used to assess the motor function of the stomach and rumen, respectively. Sphygmography (recording of arterial pulse wave) is important for diagnosing arrhythmias. Using electrocardiography (recording the biopotentials of the heart), the functional state of the heart is assessed and almost all types of cardiac arrhythmias are recognized. During phonocardiography, sound phenomena in the beating heart are recorded. These and some other graphic methods, their diagnostic significance, are discussed in more detail in the sections devoted to the study individual systems and organs.

X-ray methods are based on the use of electromagnetic oscillations of a certain wavelength - x-rays. Depending on the receiver of these rays used, a distinction is made between fluoroscopy (obtaining a shadow image of a body area on a fluoroscopic screen) and radiography (an X-ray image on a special photographic film, which after development is called a radiograph). There are also types of radiography - fluorography, electroradiography, X-ray photometry, etc.

Surgical methods make it possible to obtain material for subsequent laboratory and other studies. Among them, biopsy and puncture are the most commonly used. Biopsy is intravital excision of a piece of organ tissue. Puncture is a puncture of a body cavity or vessel in order to obtain biological fluid or tissue cells. Operative-surgical manipulations are carried out with special needles with mandrels or trocars of a certain design in strict compliance with the rules of surgical intervention.

It should be borne in mind that the list of special methods for studying animals is constantly expanding with the development of science and technology. Veterinary specialists successfully use echography (obtaining images of organs and tissues using ultrasonic waves), biotelemetry (registering information at a distance from the object of study), radioisotope studies (studying the function and structure of organs using radioactive substances introduced into the body) and many others in clinical practice. methods.

Laboratory methods involve the study of blood, urine, feces, expiration, punctures, secrets. General clinical analysis blood consists of determining the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, hemoglobin concentration, counting the number of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets, removing the leukogram and calculating color index. A biochemical study of blood includes the determination of indicators characterizing protein, carbohydrate, lipid, mineral, vitamin and other types of metabolism. Laboratory analysis urine, feces, effluent fluids, etc. carried out in the following areas: the study of the physical properties of the material (quantity, color, consistency, smell, impurities, relative density, etc.); chemical research to determine the presence of certain substances; microscopic examination.

Functional methods are used to assess the function of the body systems as a whole or its individual organs. They are usually used when the animal shows a decrease in productivity or performance, and clinical and laboratory studies fail to detect any major changes. In addition, knowledge of the functional capacity of the system is necessary to formulate the prognosis of the disease. In veterinary medicine, the methods of functional study of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, nervous systems, urinary organs (kidneys), endocrine organs and hematopoietic organs.

To the main methods clinical trial of the patient include: examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry.
Inspection It's best to do it in daylight. If necessary, you can use strong white diffused light (artificial). The study of the contours of the body and its individual parts is carried out with side lighting. In some cases, lighting devices (mirror, reflector, endoscope) can be used.
The examination is carried out in a certain sequence: first, the head, neck, then the chest, the iliac region, the abdomen, pelvis, limbs, etc. are examined. At the same time, they try to notice the existing abnormalities in the position of the animal, the shape, size, color and properties of the body surface. In the evaluation of examination data obtained by the method of examination, one often resorts to comparing one part of the body with the corresponding opposite.
Inspection can be a very valuable method of mass animal research. So, for example, against the background healthy livestock sick herds are easy to spot, which usually lag behind others, eat poorly, are depressed, and show other symptoms or signs of illness.
Palpation(palpation) of organs and tissues establish the nature of their surface, temperature, consistency, shape, size and sensitivity. This method provides objective data in a comparative study of the healthy side with the patient. It is better to start palpation from healthy areas and from the healthy side, and then move on to the diseased side and to the diseased area. Palpation can be done directly with the fingers and with instruments (eg, trial hoof forceps, probes). There are deep and superficial palpation.
superficial palpation is performed by light touches and sliding on the skin of the palm. It can be used to determine the quality of the heart beat, chest vibration, skin surface temperature, pain reaction, muscle tension. It is used to study pulsating vessels.
Deep palpation is the palpation of tissues and organs with the ends of the fingers by gradually increasing pressure. This type of palpation is used in the study of organs located in the abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, liver, spleen and kidneys), especially in small and medium-sized animals. A variety of deep palpation includes penetrating and jerky palpation.
Penetrating palpation is performed with vertically placed fingers with constant but strong pressure in a limited place (according to the topographic location of the organ under study).
Jerky palpation consists of short and strong pushes applied with the fingers. It is used to determine the fluid in the cavities, as well as in the study of the liver and spleen. In the presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity, fluctuation is observed, and in case of disease said bodies their pain manifests itself.
Percussion(tapping) is the study of animals using the tapping method. By the nature of the sounds resulting from percussion, it is possible to judge the state of the organs. There are direct and mediocre percussion.
Immediate percussion consists in short blows to the examined part of the body, applied by one or more fingers folded together and slightly bent.
This method is often used to examine the frontal and maxillary sinuses. It is also used in cases where it is necessary to obtain not only sound, but also tactile impressions. Mediocre percussion can be digital and instrumental.
Digital percussion is performed with a slightly bent middle finger of the right hand along the terminal phalanx of the index or middle finger of the left hand, tightly attached to the corresponding part of the body (it acts as a plessimeter). The blows should be short and abrupt.
In veterinary practice, digital percussion is applicable to the study of small animals, calves and long-haired sheep and goats.
instrumental percussion - percussion with a percussion hammer and a plessimeter (Fig. 10). Used as a pessimeter various shapes and sizes of plates made of metal, wood, bone and plastic.

A general examination begins after registration and anamnesis collection. It includes the determination of habit, skin, lymph nodes, mucous membranes and body temperature measurement.

Definition of habit. Habitus is understood as the appearance of the animal at the time of research: position of the body in space, fatness, physique, constitution and temperament.

The body position in healthy animals can be naturally standing or naturally lying; in some diseases it can be forced lying or standing. A forced position is characterized by the fact that animals cannot quickly change it in accordance with the changing situation. Thus, a forced lying position is observed in some febrile diseases, when dogs and cats lie huddled in a corner and do not rise or rise when called.

Physique refers to the degree of development of muscles and bones. When assessing it, the age and breed of the animal are taken into account. There are weak, medium and strong physiques.

With a strong physique, animals have a wide and deep chest, strong, strong legs, steep ribs with wide intercostal spaces.

With an average build, the muscles of the shoulder, thigh, and limbs are well defined, and the bones are strong.

A weak physique is characterized by poor muscle development, a thin and long neck, a narrow chest, and long thin limbs.

Fatness of dogs and cats determined by inspection and palpation. In short-haired animals, fatness is determined by examining the external forms of the body, and in long-haired animals, by palpation. There are good, satisfactory and unsatisfactory nutrition. With good fatness, animals have rounded body contours, with unsatisfactory - angular, with satisfactory - the muscles are moderately developed, the deposition of subcutaneous fat can be felt at the base of the tail, in the knee fold.

Animal constitution- this is a set of anatomical and morphological characteristics of an organism, based on hereditary and acquired properties, which determines both its functional and reactive capabilities under the influence of environmental factors. There are four types of constitution: rough, tender, dense and loose. The definition of types is based on the development of bones, muscles, skin and subcutaneous connective tissue.

When assessing temperament, attention is paid to the speed and degree of the animal’s reaction to external stimuli, and the dogs’ behavior, eye expression, movements, ears and tail are observed. Depending on these factors, animals with a lively and phlegmatic temperament are distinguished. Dogs and cats with a lively temperament actively react to external irritations by playing with their ears, tail, changing their gaze, and head position. Their movements are fast and energetic. But certain precautions should be taken with such animals, as they can be aggressive. Dogs and cats with a phlegmatic temperament are sedentary and lazy.

Skin tests for dogs and cats

The skin is examined by inspection and palpation, determining the condition of the coat, skin moisture, smell, temperature and elasticity. By examining non-pigmented areas, the color of the skin, its integrity, the nature of the lesions, as well as the condition of the coat (cleanliness, shine, tightness, density and uniformity) are determined.

Palpation determines skin temperature, moisture and elasticity. To determine skin temperature, the nose and tip of the tail are palpated and compared with the temperature on the sides of the chest. Skin moisture is determined by stroking the palm of the hand on various parts of the animal’s body. The shedding of epidermal scales and the absence of a greasy coating on the fingers indicate dry skin. The wetness of the fingers after palpation indicates sweating, and the presence of a greasy coating on the crumbs of the fingers indicates moderate skin moisture. To determine the elasticity of the skin on the back, it is gathered into a fold, pulled back, and then released, trying to hold the hair between the fingers. In healthy animals, straightening of the fold occurs immediately. Loss or decrease in elasticity is accompanied by a delay in this process, and if there are no or less than 10 hairs left between the fingers, it is considered that the hair is well retained in the skin.

Examination of mucous membranes. In dogs and cats, the conjunctiva and mucous membranes of the nose and mouth are examined. At the same time, attention is paid to their color, integrity, presence of overlaps, hemorrhages and secretion.

In carnivores, the conjunctiva is pale pink, but when the animals are excited it turns pink-red. The oral mucosa is pale pink and very often has dark pigmentation. Examination of the nasal mucosa is difficult due to the narrow nasal openings and the small mobility of the wings of the nose, therefore, if necessary, a rhinoscope is used.

To examine the conjunctiva, apply thumb one hand on the upper eyelid, and the other on the lower eyelid. Then they press on the lower eyelid, while simultaneously pulling the upper eyelid upward. To examine the mucous membrane of the lower eyelid, pressure is applied to the upper eyelid, and the lower eyelid is pulled down.

When analyzing the oral mucosa, the lips, cheeks, gums, tongue and hard palate are examined. To do this, dogs open the oral cavity with the help of two ribbons placed on the upper and lower jaws behind the fangs, or the dog owner puts his hand under the lower jaw and covers it, pressing his fingers on the cheeks. The cheeks are pressed between the molars, the dog opens its mouth and cannot close it.

Measuring body temperature of dogs and cats

Thermometry is an objective research method that facilitates the diagnosis of diseases.

Body temperature is measured in dogs and cats with a maximum mercury thermometer. Before administration, shake it, holding the mercury reservoir with your index finger, and then lubricate it with oil or Vaseline. Better place to measure body temperature - the rectum, where the thermometer is inserted with a slight rotational movement, then fixing it on the tail using a sponge. During this procedure, animals are held by the head. Measurement time is 8-10 minutes.

Normal body temperature in dogs fluctuates between 37.5-39.0 °C, and cats 38-39.5 ° C. It should be borne in mind that it depends on age, gender, breed, external temperature. Puppies, kittens, bitches and cats have a higher temperature than adults and males. Minimum indicators It is observed in the second half of the night, and the maximum is recorded in the evening hours.

Study of the circulatory organs of dogs and cats

The cardiovascular system is examined by inspection, palpation, percussion and auscultation.

Heart study. The heart of carnivores is located between the 3rd and 7th ribs, with 3/7 of the heart located on the right side of the chest. The anterior border runs along the anterior edge of the 3rd rib, the upper one is 2-3 cm below the horizontal line of the scapula. shoulder joint, and the back reaches the 7th rib.

Animal Heart Research begin with examination and palpation of the cardiac region in order to determine the cardiac impulse, when examining the area, oscillatory movements of the chest are noticed. Using palpation, the heartbeat is examined with the animal in a standing position. Determine its rhythm, strength, localization and distribution. The most intense cardiac impulse is felt in the area of ​​the 5th intercostal space in the lower third of the chest. On the right it is felt weaker and is fixed in the 4th-5th intercostal space.

Percussion of the heart area is carried out to establish the boundaries of the organ. The upper border is determined by the posterior vertical line of the anconeus. Percussion begins from the edge of the scapula and goes down until the pulmonary (atympanic) sound changes to dull. This line is the upper clinical border of the heart. Normally, it is located 1-2 cm below the shoulder joint. Below the upper cardiac border there is an area of ​​absolute cardiac dullness. The posterior border is determined along the line connecting the ulnar tubercle and the ulnar tubercle, while the plessimeter is moved into the next intercostal space stepwise upward and backward until the sound passes into the pulmonary one. Normally, the posterior border of the heart in dogs reaches the 7th rib. In addition, when the animal is sitting, the part of the cardiac region covered by the sternum is also percussed.

With various diseases, there may be an increase, decrease and displacement of the borders of the heart. An increase in the boundaries is observed with cardiac hypertrophy, cardiac dropsy, pericarditis, cardiac enlargement, and a decrease is observed with alveolar emphysema, pneumothorax.

When auscultating the heart, the strength and clarity of tones, frequency and rhythm, as well as the presence or absence of murmurs are determined. Auscultation is performed in the area of ​​the 4-6th intercostal space on the left and 4-6th on the right. In carnivores, the tones are loud and clear; it should be borne in mind that they normally have respiratory arrhythmia, and sometimes embryocardia, characterized by heart sounds of equal strength and timbre with equal pauses. When diagnosing heart defects using auscultation, you should know the points of best audibility. Such a point for the bicuspid valve in dogs is the 5th intercostal space in the middle of the lower third of the chest, for the semilunar valves of the aorta - the 4th intercostal space under the horizontal line from the humeral tubercle, and the pulmonary artery - on the left in the 3rd intercostal space along the upper edge of the sternum. The best place the audibility of the right atrioventricular valve is the 3rd-4th intercostal space in the lower half of the third of the chest.

In various diseases, changes in heart sounds may be observed in the form of their strengthening, weakening, accentuation, rhythm of heart sounds, and murmurs associated with cardiac activity may occur.

Study of the arterial pulse of animals

The arterial pulse is examined by palpating the crumbs of 2-3 fingers of superficially located arteries, under which there is a hard base. Pay attention to the frequency, rhythm and quality of the pulse. To determine the pulse, examine the femoral artery in the groin area, the brachial artery on the medial surface of the humerus above the elbow joint, or the saphenous artery immediately above the hock joint between the Achilles tendon and the deep flexor digitorum. In newborn puppies The pulse rate per minute is 180-200. In adult dogs- 70-120, y cats- 110-130. When determining the quality of the pulse, the filling of the arteries, the size of the pulse wave, its shape, and voltage are taken into account vascular wall. Depending on the filling, a distinction is made between a full pulse (the diameter of the vessel during the filling period is twice the thickness of its two walls) and an empty pulse (the lumen of the artery is less than the thickness of its two walls).

The size of the pulse wave is used to judge the blood supply to the artery and the tone of the vascular wall. Depending on the size, a large pulse is distinguished, characterized by good filling arteries, and a small pulse, in which the artery is poorly filled, its expansion is almost not pronounced and is felt by the fingers in the form of weak tremors.

The rhythm of the pulse is judged by the periodicity in time and the correctness of the alternation of its phases in accordance with the rhythm of the heart. Based on this, a distinction is made between rhythmic and arrhythmic pulse.

Research on the respiratory system of dogs and cats

The respiratory system is examined using the methods of inspection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion. If necessary, they resort to special methods: radiography, fluoroscopy, fluorography, plegaphony, rhinography, etc. The upper respiratory tract and chest are examined.

The examination of the upper respiratory tract begins with examination of the nasal openings. Pay attention to the condition of the wings of the nose, the nature of exhaled air, nasal discharge, and examine accessory cavities nose When examining exhaled air, pay attention to its smell, which in some diseases can be putrefactive, sweetish, etc. If there are nasal discharges, their nature (mucous, serous, purulent, putrefactive, etc.), quantity (abundant, scanty,) periodicity (constant or periodic), color, symmetry is determined.

Studies of the accessory cavities are carried out by inspection, palpation and percussion. Upon examination, a change in the configuration of the sinuses is determined. Palpation determines the sensitivity and softening of the bones of the maxillary and frontal sinuses. Percussion of the sinuses is carried out with the butt of a percussion hammer without a pleximeter. At the same time, cover the animal’s eye with your palm on the side from which the study is being carried out. Using percussion, the nature of the sound is determined, by which the presence of exudate in the cavities is judged. In healthy animals, the accessory cavities are filled with air and the sound during percussion is boxed, and when inflammatory processes(due to the presence of exudate), it becomes dull and dull.

The larynx and trachea are examined by inspection, palpation and auscultation.

Upon examination, the presence of deformation and changes in the volume of these organs are revealed. In some diseases, swelling in the larynx is detected. Internal examination of the anterior parts of the larynx can be done through the oral cavity.

Palpation of the larynx begins from the lower part of the neck, moving the fingers forward to the intermaxillary space, feeling the larynx. At the same time, its pain, temperature, and presence of swelling are determined.

Then the fingers are moved down from the larynx, feeling the trachea in order to determine changes in its integrity, sensitivity, and temperature.

Auscultation of the larynx and trachea is carried out using a phonendoscope. In healthy dogs, inhalation and exhalation are heard, phonetically reproduced as the sound “x”, called laryngeal respiratory noise. In the tracheal region it is called tracheal breathing.

Chest examination of dogs and cats

The examination of the chest begins with its examination, establishing the shape and size, type, frequency, strength, symmetry and rhythm of respiratory movements. The chest shape of healthy dogs and cats is moderately round. With pulmonary atelectasis, it decreases in volume, becomes flat, and with emphysema, it becomes barrel-shaped.

The type of breathing is mixed - thoraco-abdominal, although in some breeds it is predominantly thoracic. Disease respiratory system and associated organs entails a change in the type of breathing. In animals with mixed type chest type breathing can be a consequence of a disease of the diaphragm, thoracic dropsy; In case of injury or fracture of the ribs, the type of breathing becomes abdominal.

Respiratory rate is determined by the number of breathing movements per minute. In dogs it ranges from 12 to 24, and in cats - 20-30. The number of respiratory movements is counted by the number of inhalations and exhalations according to the vibrations of the chest or during auscultation of the trachea. The respiratory rate is influenced by age, breed, constitution and physiological state animal. Female and young dogs breathe more frequently than older and male dogs.

Depending on the strength, breathing can be moderate, deep or shallow.

The symmetry of respiratory movements is determined by comparing the excursion of the left and right chest walls. To do this, stand in front of the animal so that you can clearly see both sides of the chest. Uniform excursion of the chest on both sides indicates symmetry of breathing.

The rhythm of breathing is understood as the sequential alternation of the phases of inhalation and exhalation. At the same time, inhale like active phase, shorter than exhalation and the ratio between them is 1:1.6. Most frequent violations rhythm is shortness of breath. Moreover, if it is caused by a violation of inspiration, they speak of inspiratory dyspnea, exhalation - expiratory, and if difficulty breathing manifests itself in both phases, then they speak of mixed dyspnea.

Palpation of the chest carried out to establish temperature, sensitivity, tangible vibration noise. Sensitivity is determined by pressing with your knuckles along the intercostal spaces. In case of pain, animals avoid palpation and become aggressive.

The temperature and palpable vibration sounds of the chest are determined by placing the palm of the hand on various parts of it. A local increase in temperature is most often observed with pleurisy. At fibrinous pleurisy, pericarditis, when the surface of the pleura or pericardium becomes rough, a peculiar vibration of the chest is detected by palpation.

Percussion of the chest carried out in order to establish topographic boundaries lungs, detection of pathological changes in them or the pleura. For percussion, it is better to place the dog on the table, using the digital method. To do this, the finger of one hand is pressed tightly against the chest wall in the intercostal space, and a moderate blow is applied with the finger of the other. By percussion, the posterior border of the lungs is determined along the lines of the macular, ischial tuberosity and scapulohumeral joint. Percuss from front to back. The posterior percussion border along the line of the macular reaches the 12th rib, along the line of the 11th ischial tuberosity - to the 11th, and the scapulohumeral joint - to the 9th. Most often, an increase in the borders of the lung occurs with alveolar or interstitial emphysema, and a decrease occurs with intestinal flatulence, hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver and some other diseases.

: 1 - along the maklok line; 2 - along the line of the ischial tuberosity; 3 - along the line of the scapulohumeral joint.

Pathological changes in the lungs or pleura are detected by percussion from top to bottom along the intercostal spaces within the established boundaries of the lung. In this case, in healthy animals, an atympanic or clear pulmonary sound is established. For pneumonia, pulmonary edema and others pathological conditions accompanied by filling of the lungs with fluid or accumulation of the latter in the pleural cavity, the sound becomes dull or dull. With significant expansion of the lungs due to increased residual air with alveolar emphysema, the percussion sound becomes boxed, and when it forms in lung tissue air cavities, which is noted in interstitial emphysema, it acquires a tympanic character.

Auscultation of the chest carried out to determine the nature of respiratory sounds. For this, two methods are used: direct and instrumental. With the direct method, auscultation is performed with the naked ear through a sheet or towel. Mediocre - carried out using a phonendoscope or stethoscope.

Auscultation should be carried out in a certain sequence: starting with listening to areas with the best audibility of respiratory sounds, followed by moving to areas with poorer audibility. To comply with this rule, it is recommended to conditionally divide the animal’s chest on each side into three parts: upper, middle and lower. Then the upper and middle parts are divided into two halves by a vertical line. This results in five listening zones. Auscultation in them is carried out in the following order: anterior-middle section, posterior-middle, anterior-superior, posterior-superior and lower.

When auscultating the chest of healthy dogs, intense and loud respiratory sounds are heard during the inhalation phase and partly at the beginning of the exit. This type of breathing is called vesicular. Just behind the scapulohumeral girdle, during the inhalation and exhalation phases, a loud respiratory noise is heard, phonetically resembling the letter “x” and called bronchial breathing.

In various diseases, the nature of physiological respiratory sounds may change and pathological ones may occur. This manifests itself as a strengthening or weakening vesicular respiration, appearance bronchial breathing in areas not typical for it, the appearance of pathological noises (various wheezing, friction noises and pleura, etc.).

Study of the digestive organs of dogs and cats

When examining the digestive organs, methods of examination, examination, palpation, auscultation, and percussion are used. If necessary, they resort to probing of the esophagus and stomach, radiography and fluoroscopy, laboratory tests of gastric juice, feces, etc.

Studies of the digestive system are carried out according to the following scheme: the act of ingesting food and water, the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, abdomen, stomach and intestines, observation of the act of defecation.

When studying the act of receiving food and water, pay attention to Special attention on appetite and the act of swallowing.

Appetite is examined by observing the animal while eating food. It is influenced by the physiological state of the animal, the environment, the quality and type of food, and feeding time. There may be an absence, decrease, increase, or perversion of appetite. It decreases or is absent when various pathologies infectious, invasive and non-infectious origin. Increased appetite accompanies some pathologies that occur with metabolic disorders (diabetes mellitus), and is also observed in the recovery stage after past illness. Perversion of appetite, characterized by eating inedible objects, is observed with a deficiency of mineral salts in the body, increased acidity in the stomach, rabies, etc.

In diseases of the central nervous system, lesions of the tongue, lips, teeth, and chewing muscles, there is a disorder in the intake of food and water, which manifests itself in an unusual form of this process.

With lesions of the pharynx and esophagus, the act of swallowing is disrupted. This phenomenon is characterized by pain when swallowing food. Animals squeal, worry, and sometimes food masses may be expelled through the nose (regurgitation). Complete inability to swallow is observed with pharyngeal paralysis, rabies, botulism, and encephalitis.

Vomiting may be a consequence of overfeeding. In this case, it is most often one-time, vomit corresponds to normal content stomach. Frequent vomiting characteristic of damage to the gastric mucosa, poisoning, diseases of the central nervous system, liver and other organs. In these cases, pay attention to the color and smell of the vomit.

Examination of the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus of dogs and cats

Oral cavity investigated mainly by inspection. For an internal examination, grasp the upper jaw between the thumb and forefinger, squeezing the lip between the teeth, and with the fingers of the other hand, slightly pull back the lower jaw. For the same purpose, a Baycher oral wedge or an animal mouth fixator (FPZh-1) is used in dogs. Pay attention to the mucous membrane of the oral cavity, its color, moisture, and integrity. They examine the tongue, teeth, and determine the nature of salivation. When examining teeth, pay attention to the correctness of their abrasion, integrity, and condition of the gums.

Throat examined by inspection and palpation. For inspection, after placing the yawn, the base of the tongue is pressed against the lower palate with a spatula, after which the condition of the walls of the pharynx and tonsils is determined. Palpation of the pharynx is carried out by squeezing the area of ​​the upper edge of the jugular groove slightly above the larynx with the fingers of both hands, while paying attention to the soreness of the pharynx, the presence of tissue infiltration in its area and foreign bodies in its cavity.

Esophagus examined by inspection, palpation, and also by inserting a probe. By inspection, the patency of the food coma is determined. Palpation - sensitivity of the esophagus, the presence of pathological infiltrates, tumors, foreign bodies. To identify narrowing and blockage of the esophagus, they resort to probing. For this purpose, a set of Sharabrin rubber probes or medical probes of various numbers are used in dogs, depending on the size of the dog. To install a probe or an “x”-shaped yoke of the Sharabrin system. With the help of these yawners, the working end of the probe is directed along the hard palate, then its end bends downwards, then entering the cavity of the pharynx and esophagus.

Examination of the abdomen, stomach, intestines and liver of dogs and cats

When researching belly apply methods of inspection, palpation, percussion and auscultation, and in necessary cases and a test puncture of the abdominal wall.

By examination, the volume and shape of the abdomen and the symmetry of its walls are determined. An increase in abdominal volume is observed with intestinal flatulence, stomach fullness, coprostasis, abdominal dropsy, enlarged liver, and bladder. Local disturbances in the shape of the abdomen are observed with umbilical and mesenteric hernias, abscesses of the abdominal wall. A decrease in abdominal volume occurs with exhaustion and prolonged diarrhea.

Palpation of the abdominal walls is carried out immediately on both sides with two hands. The pain, tension of the abdominal wall, and the condition of some abdominal organs are determined. Increased tension in the abdominal walls and severe pain give reason to suspect peritonitis. In addition, palpation can determine liver enlargement, the presence of intussusception and intestinal coprostasis.

The stomach, intestines, and liver are examined by percussion, and the nature of peristalsis of the stomach and intestines is determined by auscultation.

A puncture of the abdominal wall is performed to diagnose peritonitis and ascites. It is done in the lower abdomen in the area of ​​the last two pairs of nipples, 1-1.5 cm away from the white line of the abdomen.

Stomach examination carried out by inspection, palpation, auscultation, percussion, and, if necessary, radiography. The stomach is located in the left half of the abdominal cavity and in dogs reaches the abdominal wall near the 12th rib. With strong filling, it extends beyond the costal arch, lies on the abdominal wall and reaches umbilical region. Examination determines the shape and volume of the abdomen. Palpation of the stomach is carried out in a standing position, pressing with the fingers of both hands placed behind the costal arches on both sides, inward and forward. At the same time, the position of the stomach, its filling and pain are determined.

When examining the intestines use auscultation, external palpation and examination of the abdomen. It should be taken into account that the small intestine occupies mainly the right half of the abdominal cavity, and the thick intestine occupies the left half.

During examination, pay attention to the abdominal wall in the area of ​​the right and left hungry fossa. Protrusion in the area of ​​the left hungry fossa is usually characteristic of flatulence in the large intestine, and in the area of ​​the right - in the small intestine.

The most important method for examining the intestines of animals is palpation. It is carried out in a standing position of the animal, evenly squeezing the lateral surfaces of the abdomen on both sides. At the same time, the degree of fullness and sensitivity of the intestines is determined. Auscultation of the intestines makes it possible to judge the nature of peristalsis.

When studying the act of defecation, pay attention to its frequency (in animals on a meat diet, once a day). Disorder of the act of defecation manifests itself in the form of diarrhea, constipation, and pain during defecation.

Liver examined by palpation and percussion. Palpation is carried out by placing the animal on its right side, as a result of which the liver moves towards the abdominal wall. After this, place your hand on the right under the last rib and feel the edge of the liver. Percussion of the organ is carried out with the animal standing, just behind the posterior border of the lung. On the right side, the area of ​​hepatic dullness in dogs is located within the 10-13th rib, and on the left - in the 11th intercostal space.

Study of the urinary system of animals

Includes the study of the process of urination, examination of the kidneys and bladder, and, if necessary, a study of animal urine.

When studying the process of urination, pay attention to the animal’s posture at this moment, duration, frequency, as well as total urine and its appearance. The position when urinating depends on the gender: males raise their pelvic limb, females raise their tail and squat. The number of urinations depends on the conditions of detention. Usually dogs urinate 3-4 times a day, but when kept freely, much more often.

Kidneys They are examined mainly by external palpation through the abdominal wall. At the same time, pay attention to the location of the buds, their size, shape, sensitivity, consistency, and surface condition. For palpation, both thumbs are placed on lumbar region, the rest on the stomach on both sides behind the last rib. Then move your fingers up the abdominal wall to the last thoracic vertebra, evenly pressing them towards each other. The left kidney is found in the anterior left corner of the hungry fossa under the 2-4th lumbar vertebrae. Right kidney examined in the anterior corner of the hungry fossa under the first and third lumbar vertebrae. With various diseases, it is possible to establish an increase and decrease in the kidneys, changes in their surface, and sensitivity. An increase can be observed with pyelonephritis, hydronephrosis, a decrease - with cirrhosis, pain - with inflammation and urolithiasis.

The main research method bladder in dogs and cats is palpation through the abdominal wall. The bladder is located in its lower region in front of the pubic fusion. The study is carried out with the animals in a sitting position, for which fingers are placed on the abdominal wall in the area where the bladder is located and light pressure is applied towards each other to palpate. In decorative breeds of dogs and cats, the bladder is examined through the rectum. To do this, after appropriate treatment of the index finger, it is inserted into the rectum, and with the opposite hand, pressure is applied to the abdominal wall. Examination of the bladder makes it possible to judge its filling and sensitivity. In case of inflammation, pain during palpation is noted, tumors are detected by the presence of dense bodies, and urinary stones- in the form of solid formations that move during palpation.

Study of the nervous system of dogs and cats

When studying the nervous system, the behavior of the animal, the condition of its skull and spinal column, sensory organs, skin sensitivity, motor sphere, and reflex activity are studied.

The behavior of an animal is judged by the results of observations of its reaction to external stimuli(call, approach stranger, giving food, etc.). Behavioral disorder manifests itself in agitation, depression, stuporous or comatose state. The most characteristic is an increase in excitability during rabies, which turns into violence. Dogs break loose, run away from home, cats attack people and animals. Depression is accompanied by a delay in function nervous activity. Animals are inactive and their response to stimuli is sharply reduced. In stupor, animals are in a state deep sleep, from which they can be withdrawn only when exposed to strong stimuli. A characteristic sign of a coma is loss of reflexes and consciousness.

Research methods skull and spinal column are inspection, palpation and percussion.

During the examination, the shape and volume of the skull, its symmetry, as well as the presence of spinal deformities are determined.

During palpation, sensitivity, temperature of local tissues, hardness are determined. bone formations, their deformation. The spinal column is palpated, starting from the cervical vertebrae and ending with the vertebrae of the tail root.

The skull is percussed with a finger, and in large dogs, with the butt of a percussion hammer for small animals. At the same time, pay attention to the nature of the sound and the animal’s reaction to percussion. If there is exudate in the sinuses, dullness of sound is noted. The spinal column is percussed with a hammer without a plessimeter from the slope of the withers to the root of the tail, paying attention to the presence of pain.

Study of the sense organs of dogs and cats includes the study of vision, hearing, smell, taste.

The state of vision is judged by its organs (eyelids, eyeball), pupil reaction to a light stimulus. The latter is determined by closing the eye being examined for 2-3 minutes. In this case, in healthy animals the pupil dilates and quickly returns to normal after the eye is opened. To check for decreased or loss of vision in dogs, alternately close their eyes and lead them to an obstacle. When vision is lost, the animal does not notice them.

Hearing is examined by closing the animal's eyes and then playing familiar sound stimuli: a whistle, a shout. When the nerve is damaged hearing aid these sounds are perceived worse.

The sense of smell is also checked after elimination visual analyzers. Dogs and cats are presented with objects or food whose smell is well known to them. When the sense of smell decreases, animals do not react to these odors.

Taste is determined based on the reaction of animals to various feeds and unusual substances.

Skin sensitivity test. When examining skin sensitivity, pay attention to the reaction skin when exposed to tactile, pain and temperature stimuli.

The study of tactile sensitivity is carried out after closing the animal’s eyes. Then, by light touch, individual hairs in the area of ​​the withers, abdomen, auricle or nostrils. When tactile nerve endings are irritated, an animal response occurs in the form of contraction of the corresponding areas of the skin. The lack of reaction indicates the disappearance of tactile sensitivity.

Pain sensitivity is determined by tingling the skin with the tip of a needle. It starts from the distal parts of the limbs and goes up to the area of ​​the croup or shoulder blade, and then the spinal column and ends at the neck of the animal. Healthy dogs and the cats look around, tuck their ears, fan themselves with their tails, bite, scratch.

Temperature sensitivity is determined by touching various areas skin test tubes filled with hot or cold water, which are applied alternately.

Study of the motor sphere of dogs and cats

Study motor sphere includes determination of movement activity, muscle tone and coordination of movements.

Determination of movement activity is carried out by inspection. In this case, partial (paresis) or complete loss of motor function (paralysis) may be observed.

Muscle tone is examined by palpation. Depending on muscle tension, it can be moderate, decreased or increased. With reduced tone, the muscles are flabby, the range of movements of the limbs is wide, and the joints often bend; when it is elevated, there is strong muscle tension, they become dense, and passive movements are difficult to perform.

Clinical examination of the nervous system tests superficial and deep reflexes. Superficial reflexes include skin and mucous membrane reflexes. From the skin, the tail reflex is determined, accompanied by pressing the tail to the body.

Also indicative is the abdominal reflex, characterized by a strong contraction of the abdominal muscles in response to a light touch, as well as the anal reflex, manifested by contraction of the anal sphincter when touching the skin in the anus. Of the reflexes of the mucous membranes in dogs, the most indicative is sneezing. It is checked by irritating the nasal mucosa with a light object (feather, match).

Purpose of the lesson. Master general methods of animal research: inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation; master the technique of thermometry; become familiar with special research methods.

Research objects and equipment. Horses, cows, dogs.

Percussion hammers, plessimeters, phonendoscopes, stethoscopes, sheets or towels for auscultation, thermometers.

General methods of clinical research include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. Mastery of these research methods is one of the main conditions that allows a specialist to identify pathology. In most cases, to clarify the diagnosis along with general methods additionally have to be applied special methods research: instrumental and laboratory methods.

Inspection (from lat. inspection - inspection, check). This is the simplest and available method animal research. It is advisable to carry out the inspection in natural light (daylight) or in good artificial lighting. The inspection can be performed with the naked eye or using special instruments. The animal first undergoes a general and then a local examination. General inspection. Involves examining the entire body of the animal, regardless of possible localization painful process. In this case, it is possible to draw conclusions about the position of the body in space, fatness, physique, the condition of the skin and hair, superficial injuries, discharge from natural orifices, the condition of the eyes, to identify excitation, depression or other signs characteristic of dysfunctions of the organs and systems of the body.

Local inspection. This inspection found during general examination animal injuries or areas of the body where the disease process is mainly localized.

Local inspection can be divided into external, when the outer integument of the animal’s body is examined, and internal, when areas located not on the surface of the body, but in the depths, such as the cavity of the larynx, pharynx, etc., are subject to inspection.

During the study, various instruments can be used, including those equipped with light sources. Using instruments, the following can be examined: oral and nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, vagina, rectum, bladder, etc.

Palpation (from Lat. .palpatio - palpation). A method in which palpation is used, i.e. based on the sense of touch. The palpation method allows you to determine the physical condition of the organs and tissues of the body.

Palpation is carried out with fingertips (pads), without causing pain to the animal. In some cases, palpation can be performed with a fist, hand, back side hands.

Palpation is divided into superficial and deep.

Superficial palpation is performed by placing the palm or fingertips over the examination site, applying gentle pressure and sliding over the area being examined. This method allows you to examine the skin, subcutaneous tissue, lymph nodes, superficial vessels, tendons, muscles, joints, etc. By palpation you can determine local temperature, pain, configuration and size of the formation, consistency, nature of the surface, etc.

Palpation should always begin with a healthy area of ​​the body, gradually moving to the affected area. Movements of the fingers or palms should be smooth, soft, and not cause additional pain to the animal.

Deep palpation is a method by which deeply located organs and lesions are examined. The types of deep palpation include: penetrating; bimanual; push-like (balloting).

When conducting penetrating palpation fist or vertically placed fingers carry out a gradual, but strong pressure through the abdominal wall, reaching the organ under study and determining its physical condition. In this way, the rumen and abomasum are examined.

Bimanual palpation(palpation with both hands) is performed on the stomach of small animals. The method involves simultaneous, gradual pressure with both hands on both sides of the abdominal wall. Research is carried out standing behind the animal. Bimanual palpation is also used when examining the pharynx, especially in large animals.

If you suspect the presence of fluid, a neoplasm or an enlarged organ in the abdominal cavity, use jerky (balloting) palpation. With jerky palpation, studies are carried out with jerking movements of the fingers or fist. The palpation technique is as follows: bring your fingers or fist to the wall of the abdominal cavity and perform a push, while at the end of the push the hand is not removed from the abdominal wall (this is especially important if ascites is suspected); if there is a neoplasm or an enlarged organ, the hand immediately encounters this organ or neoplasm, and in the presence of fluid, a push through the abdominal wall is not felt immediately, but after some time (return of the fluid that receded during the push).

Deep internal palpation allows you to diagnose the condition of organs located in cavities far from the surface of the body (pharynx, organs of the pelvic and abdominal cavities).

The study of the organs of the pelvic and abdominal cavities through the wall of the rectum is usually called rectal examination. In large animals, a rectal examination is carried out with a hand inserted into the rectum, while in small animals it is possible to examine in best case scenario organs of the pelvic cavity, as it is performed with a finger.

Percussion (from lat. percussio - tapping). The method is based on the ability of each tissue or organ to produce a characteristic sound when percussed. Depending on the physical condition organ, this sound can change, and the nature of the changed sound is used to judge certain conditions of the organs and tissues of the body.

It is better to perform percussion indoors so that extraneous noise does not interfere. There are direct and mediocre percussion.

Direct percussion involves striking the area of ​​interest directly with a finger or hammer. The maxillary and frontal sinuses are subjected to direct percussion. In other areas of the body, direct percussion is ineffective, since the conditions for the emergence of sounds are negligible.

Direct percussion performed with a finger is called digital, while percussion performed with a percussion hammer is called instrumental.

With mediocre percussion, blows to the study site are applied not directly to the skin, but through a finger (digital) or a plesimeter (instrumental).

According to the method of striking, topographic and exploratory percussion are distinguished. When, after a blow, the finger or hammer is slightly held on the finger or plessimeter, this method is called topographic and is used to determine the boundaries of an organ or pathological focus. Abrupt percussion, without delaying the hammer or finger, is called staccato and is used to examine an organ or lesion.

Digital percussion is of particular value in the study of small animals (dogs, cats, small cattle, rabbits, birds, calves, foals, piglets, skinny adult pigs). When studying large animals, digital percussion is not very informative, but can be used in the absence of instruments (pessimeter and hammer).

Digital percussion is carried out by pressing the middle finger of one hand to the test site and applying short paired blows to it perpendicular to the middle finger of the other hand.

For instrumental percussion, the instruments used are a plessimeter and a percussion hammer. They can be different in shape, weight and design (Fig. 1.12).

Rice. 1.12. Animal Percussion Instruments different types: A- percussion hammers; b- plessimeters

The hammer is taken with the thumb and forefinger, and the handle is pressed against the palm with the remaining fingers. The arm is bent at the wrist joint.

The most convenient to use are plessimeters with a narrow working platform, and the size of the hammer depends on the size of the animal. Large hammers are preferable for studying large animals; small hammers are preferable for small animals.

When performing instrumental percussion, the plessimeter is pressed tightly to the skin at the site of examination (for example, if it is chest wall, then strictly in the intercostal spaces) and with a percussion hammer, paired blows are applied to it with a small interval and always of the same force. The blows must be directed perpendicular to the plessimeter. The pleximeter should be moved one step during percussion. When examining small animals or animals with poor nutritional status, the blows should be weaker. Percussion of the same force is used to determine the boundaries of an organ or pathological focus. However, it must be remembered that using the percussion method it is possible to examine the organs of an animal to a depth of up to 7 cm from the surface of the body, i.e. deeper located organs and their parts, as well as lesions, are inaccessible to study by percussion.

When performing percussion, the following conditions must be observed: silence, the researcher’s (doctor’s) ear must be at the same level as the place of percussion, the force of impact and pressure of the plessimeter throughout the percussion must be the same, in order to avoid resonance of the sound, it is recommended to place the animal at a distance of no closer than 1 m from the wall.

Percussion determines the boundaries of the organ and lesion, which makes it possible to determine their size, as well as identify changes in the physical properties of organs.

Auscultation (from lat. auscultatio - listening). With the help of auscultation, you can listen to sounds that arise in the organs and cavities of the animal’s body.

A distinction is made between direct auscultation, when one or another organ is listened to with the ear without instruments, and mediocre, when the organ is used with instruments (phonendoscope, stethoscope, stethoscope) (Fig. 1.13).

Rice. 1.13.

• 1 - pilot; 2 - phonendoscope head; 3 - pilot holder;
• 4 - flexible sound duct; 5 - headband; 6 - membrane; 7 - stethoscope horn; # - phonendoscope head cover

Direct auscultation is performed as follows: the ear is applied through a sheet or towel (hygienic accessory) to the surface of the animal’s body in accordance with the topography of the organs that need to be listened to. The advantage of the method is that it can be performed under any conditions; sounds produced by organs are not distorted; allows you to pick up sounds from a relatively large surface of the body (although this possibility in some cases is a disadvantage, since it makes it difficult to accurately determine the source of the sound).

Direct auscultation has found wide application in veterinary practice, especially in the study of large and calm animals.

Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes, stethophonendoscopes. It allows you to listen to sounds from a more limited area than with direct auscultation. Stethoscopes are used to listen to individual components - heart sounds (for example, with defects), etc.

The narrow end of the cone-shaped extension is applied to the study site, and the ear is applied to the wide end, and the hand is removed from the stethoscope.

If auscultation is carried out with a phonendoscope with a membrane, then it is necessary to press it tightly against the animal’s body to prevent friction of the membrane on the animal’s hair, which can introduce extraneous noise into the main ones emanating from the organ being examined. This must be especially remembered when researching valve apparatus hearts.

Thermometry. This is a mandatory method of animal research, which is performed when receiving an animal, regardless of the purpose of the study.

Thermometry - very important method clinical research, since most diseases, especially infectious diseases, are initially manifested by changes in body temperature.

To measure body temperature, you can use different thermometers (mercury, electronic). Each thermometer must be checked for correct readings before use. To do this, the thermometer being tested is lowered into a vessel with water with a tested control thermometer, after 10 minutes it is removed and the readings of the tested and control thermometers are compared. A thermometer with incorrect readings is discarded.

The internal body temperature of the animal is measured in the rectal cavity. Before inserting the thermometer, check the readings, disinfect, lubricate with Vaseline or Vaseline oil. The animal is first fixed, the tail is raised and the thermometer is inserted into the rectum with rotational movements, giving it an inclined position so that the tip of the thermometer comes into contact with the mucous membrane, after which it is fixed to the tail with a sponge, a clamp or ribbons.

To measure body temperature in birds, a special “bird thermometer” is used, in which the temperature scale is designed for higher digital values ​​than in animals.

Body temperature must be measured both at the initial intake of the animal and at all subsequent examinations.

In cases where it is not possible to examine body temperature in the rectum, the thermometer is inserted into the vagina, remembering that the temperature in the vagina is 0.3-0.5 °C higher than the rectal temperature.

Special research methods. Special methods include: studies conducted in laboratories (laboratory) and performed using special tools and equipment (instrumental). Laboratory research expose body fluids and tissues. Among instrumental studies Electrocardiography (ECG) is most often performed ultrasonography heart (EchoCG), X-ray diagnostics, ultrasound (US), endoscopy (many types), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography(CT), etc.

Special methods in any required combination are additional methods studies and allow us to clarify the diagnosis.

Special research methods are described in the relevant chapters of this workshop.