Respiratory system in maturity. There is no muscle tissue in the lungs, they actively contract, they cannot. The respiratory muscles play an active role in the act of inhalation and exhalation. When they are paralyzed, breathing becomes impossible, although the respiratory organs are not affected

Breathing is a process of constant exchange of gases between the body and environment. Breathing ensures a constant supply of oxygen to the body, which is necessary for the implementation of oxidative processes, which are the main source of energy. Without access to oxygen, life can last for several minutes. During oxidative processes, it is formed carbon dioxide which must be removed from the body. Blood is the carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

The act of breathing consists of three processes:

• 1. External or pulmonary respiration - the exchange of gases between the body and the environment.
• 2. Internal or tissue respiration occurring in cells.
• 3. Transport of gases by blood, i.e. transfer of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

The human respiratory system is divided into:

• - Airways include the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi.
• -Respiratory part or lungs - consists of a parenchymal formation, which is divided into alveolar vesicles in which gas exchange occurs.

All parts of the respiratory system undergo significant changes with age structural transformations, which determines breathing patterns child's body at different stages of development.

The airways and respiratory part begin with the nasal cavity. Air enters through the nostrils nasal cavity It is divided into two halves, and behind, with the help of the choanae, it communicates with the nasopharynx. The walls of the nasal cavity are formed by bones and cartilage, lined with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is abundantly supplied blood vessels and is covered with stratified ciliated epithelium.

Passing through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed, moistened and purified. In the nasal cavity there are olfactory bulbs, thanks to which a person perceives smell.

By the time of birth, the child’s nasal cavity is underdeveloped; it is distinguished by narrow nasal openings and the virtual absence of paranasal sinuses, the final formation of which occurs in adolescence. The volume of the nasal cavity increases 2.5 times with age. Structural features of the nasal cavity of children early age make it difficult nasal breathing, children breathe frequently open mouth, which leads to susceptibility to colds. Adenoids may be a factor in this. A “stuffy” nose affects speech - nasal sound. Mouth breathing causes oxygen starvation, congestion in the chest and cranium, deformation chest, hearing loss, frequent otitis, bronchitis, abnormal (high) development of the hard palate, violation of the nasal septum and shape lower jaw. Connected to the nasal cavity are the airborne sinuses of the adjacent bones - the paranasal sinuses. Inflammatory processes can develop in the paranasal sinuses: sinusitis - inflammation of the maxillary, maxillary paranasal sinus nose; Frontal sinusitis is inflammation of the frontal sinus.

From the nasal cavity, air enters the nasopharynx, and then into the oral and laryngeal parts of the pharynx.

The child's pharynx is shorter and wider, as well as low position auditory tube. The structural features of the nasopharynx lead to the fact that diseases of the upper respiratory tract in children are often complicated by inflammation of the middle ear. Disease of the tonsil glands located in the pharynx also seriously affects the health of children. Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. Adenoids are one of the types of diseases of the tonsil glands - an enlargement of the third tonsil.

The next link in the airways is the larynx. The larynx is located on the front surface of the neck, at the level of 4-6 cervical vertebrae, on both sides there are lobes thyroid gland, and behind - the pharynx. The larynx is shaped like a funnel. Its skeleton is formed by paired and unpaired cartilage, connected by joints, ligaments and muscles. Unpaired cartilages - thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid. Paired cartilages - corniculate, arytenoid. The epiglottis covers the entrance to the larynx during swallowing. The inside of the larynx is covered with a mucous membrane with ciliated epithelium. The larynx serves to conduct air and at the same time is an organ of sound production, in which two vocal cords participate, these are mucous folds consisting of elastic connective fibers. The ligaments are stretched between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages, and limit the glottis.

In children, the larynx is shorter, narrower and higher than in adults. The larynx grows most intensively in the 1-3 years of life and during puberty - in boys an Adam's apple is formed, the vocal cords lengthen, the larynx becomes wider and longer than in girls, and the voice breaks. The mucous membrane of the airways is more abundantly supplied with blood vessels, is tender and vulnerable, and contains fewer mucous glands that protect it from damage.

The trachea extends from the lower edge of the larynx. The trachea is about 12 cm long (its length increases in accordance with the growth of the body, maximum accelerated growth at 14-16 years old), consists of cartilaginous half-rings. Back wall The trachea is soft and adjacent to the esophagus. The inside is lined with a mucous membrane containing glands that secrete mucus. From the neck area, the trachea passes into the chest cavity and is divided into two bronchi, wider and shorter on the left, and narrower and longer on the right. The bronchi enter the lungs and there they divide into bronchi of smaller diameter - bronchioles, which are divided into even smaller ones, forming bronchial tree, which in turn forms the gates of the lungs. IN chest cavity There are two lungs, they have the shape of a cone. On the side of each lung facing the heart, there are depressions - the gates of the lung, through which the bronchus, lung nerve, blood and lymphatic vessels. The bronchus branches in each lung. The bronchi, like the trachea, contain cartilage in their walls. The smallest branches of the bronchi are bronchioles, they do not have cartilage, but are equipped muscle fibers and are capable of narrowing.

The lungs are located in the chest. Every lung is covered serosa- pleura. The pleura consists of two sheets: the parietal sheet is adjacent to the chest, the intranosal sheet is fused with the lung. There is a space between the two sheets - the pleural cavity, filled serous fluid, which facilitates the sliding of pleural sheets during breathing movements. There is no air in the pleural cavity and the pressure there is negative. Pleural cavity does not communicate with each other.

Right lung consists of three, and the left one of two lobes. Every lung department consists of segments: on the right - 11 segments, on the left - 10 segments. Each segment in turn consists of many pulmonary lobes. The structural unit is the acenus - the terminal part of the bronchiole with alveolar vesicles. The bronchioles turn into expansion - alveolar ducts, on the walls of which there are protrusions - alveoli. which are the final part of the respiratory tract. The walls of the pulmonary vesicles consist of a single layer squamous epithelium and capillaries are adjacent to them. Gas exchange occurs through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries: oxygen enters the blood from the alveoli, and carbon dioxide returns back. There are up to 350 million alveoli in the lungs, and their surface reaches 150 m2. Large surface alveoli promotes better gas exchange.

In children, the lungs grow due to an increase in the volume of the alveoli (in newborns, the diameter of the alveoli is 0.07 mm, in adults it reaches 0.2 mm). Increased lung growth occurs up to three years of age. The number of alveoli by the age of 8 reaches the number in an adult. At the age of 3 to 7 years, the growth rate of the lungs is reduced. The alveoli grow especially vigorously after the age of 12; by this age the volume of the lungs increases 10 times compared to a newborn, and by the end of puberty 20 times. Accordingly, gas exchange in the lungs changes, an increase in the total surface of the alveoli leads to an increase in the diffusion capabilities of the lungs.

The exchange of gases between atmospheric air and the air in the alveoli occurs due to the rhythmic alternation of the acts of inhalation and exhalation.

Not in the lungs muscle tissue, is actively contracting, they cannot. The respiratory muscles play an active role in the act of inhalation and exhalation. When they are paralyzed, breathing becomes impossible, although respiratory organs however, they are not affected.

Inhalation is carried out as follows: under the influence nerve impulses The chest and diaphragm intercostal muscles lift the ribs and move them slightly to the side, thereby increasing the volume of the chest. When the diaphragm contracts, its dome flattens, which also leads to an increase in the volume of the chest. At deep breathing Other muscles of the chest and neck also take part. The lungs are located in a hermetically sealed chest and move passively behind its moving walls, since they are attached to the chest with the help of the pleura. This is facilitated by negative pressure in the chest. When you inhale, the lungs stretch, the pressure in them drops and becomes below atmospheric pressure, and outside air rushes into the lungs. When you exhale, the muscles relax, the ribs drop, the volume of the chest decreases, the lungs contract, the pressure in them increases and air rushes out. The depth of inspiration depends on the expansion of the chest during inhalation. The condition of the lung tissue is very important for the act of breathing. which has elasticity i.e. lung tissue has a certain resistance to stretching.

As the musculoskeletal apparatus of the respiratory system matures, and the characteristics of its development in boys and girls determine age and gender differences in breathing types. In young children, the ribs have a slight bend and occupy almost horizontal position. Upper ribs and shoulder girdle located high, the intercostal muscles are weak. In this regard, newborns breathe diaphragmatically. As the intercostal muscles develop and the child grows, the chest goes down, the ribs take on an oblique position - the child's breathing becomes thoraco-abdominal with a predominance of the diaphragmatic. At the age of 3 to 7 years, chest breathing predominates. And at the age of 7-8 years, gender differences in the type of breathing are revealed. In boys, the abdominal type predominates, and in girls, the thoracic type predominates. Sexual differentiation ends by the age of 14-17 years. The types of breathing in boys and girls can change depending on sports activities, labor activity.

Age characteristics the structure of the chest and muscles determines the characteristics of the depth and frequency of breathing in childhood. IN calm state an adult makes 16-20 breathing movements per minute, 500 ml is inhaled in one breath. air. The volume of air characterizes the depth of breathing.

The newborn's breathing is rapid and shallow. In children of the first year of life, the respiratory rate is 50-60 respiratory movements per minute, 1-2 years 30-40 respiratory movements per minute, 2-4 years 25-35 respiratory movements per minute, 4-6 years 23-26 respiratory movements per minute. In children school age there is a further decrease in the breathing rate, 18-20 respiratory movements per minute. The high frequency of respiratory movements in a child ensures high ventilation of the lungs. The volume of exhaled air in a child at 1 month of life is 30 ml, at 1 year - 70 ml, at 6 years - 156 ml, at 10 years - 240 ml, at 14 years - 300 ml. Minute breathing volume - This is the amount of air that a person exhales in 1 minute; the more often the breath, the higher the minute volume.

An important characteristic of the functioning of the respiratory system is the vital capacity of the lungs (VC) - greatest number air that a person can exhale after take a deep breath. Vital capacity changes with age and depends on body length, the degree of development of the chest and respiratory muscles, and gender. At calm breathing In one breath, about 500 cm3 of air enters the lungs - respiratory air. With maximum inhalation after a quiet exhalation, an average of 1500 cm3 of air enters the lungs more than with a quiet inhalation - an additional volume. With maximum exhalation after a normal inhalation, 1500 cm3 of air can come out of the lungs more than during a normal exhalation - the reserve volume. All these three types of volume - respiratory, additional, reserve - together make up vital capacity: 500 cm3 +1500 cm3 +1500 cm3 = 3500 cm3. After exhalation, even the deepest, about 100 cm3 of air remains in the lungs - residual air, it remains even in the lungs of a corpse, a breathing child or an adult. Air enters the lungs with the first breath after birth. Vital vital capacity is determined using a special device - a spirometer. Typically, vital capacity is greater in men than in women. Trained people have a higher vital capacity than untrained people. A child's vital capacity can be determined with his conscious participation only after 4-5 years.

Regulation of breathing is carried out by the central nervous system, special areas of which determine automatic breathing - alternating inhalation and exhalation and voluntary breathing, providing adaptive changes in the respiratory system that correspond to the situation and type of activity. Activity respiratory center regulated reflexively, by impulses coming from various receptors and humorally.

The breathing center is a group nerve cells, which are located in medulla oblongata, its destruction leads to respiratory arrest. In the respiratory center there are two sections: the inhalation section and the exhalation section, the functions of which are interconnected. When the inhalation department is excited, the exhalation department is inhibited and vice versa.

Special clusters of nerve cells in the pons and diencephalon. IN spinal cord there is a group of cells whose processes go into the spinal nerves to the respiratory muscles. In the respiratory center, excitation alternates with inhibition. When you inhale, the lungs expand, their walls stretch, which irritates the endings vagus nerve. Excitation is transmitted to the respiratory center and inhibits its activity. The muscles stop receiving stimulation from the respiratory center and relax, the chest drops, its volume decreases, and exhalation occurs. When relaxed, the centripetal fibers of the vagus nerve cease to be excited, and the respiratory center does not receive inhibitory impulses; it is excited again - the next inhalation occurs. In this way, self-regulation occurs: inhalation causes exhalation, and exhalation causes inhalation.

The activity of the respiratory center is also regulated humorally, changing depending on the chemical composition of the blood. The reason for changes in the activity of the respiratory center is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. It is a specific respiratory stimulant: an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood leads to stimulation of the respiratory center - breathing becomes frequent and deep. This continues until the level of carbon dioxide in the blood decreases to normal. The respiratory center responds to a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood by decreasing excitability until it completely stops its activity for some time. Leading physiological mechanism affecting the respiratory center is the reflex, followed by the humoral. Breathing is subordinated to the cerebral cortex, as evidenced by the fact of voluntary holding of breath or a change in the frequency and depth of breathing, increased breathing when emotional states person.

Excitation of the respiratory center can also cause a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood. Defensive acts such as coughing and sneezing are also associated with breathing; they are carried out reflexively. A cough occurs in response to irritation of the mucous membrane of the larynx, pharynx or bronchi. And sneezing is due to irritation of the nasal mucosa.

Gas exchange increases sharply during physical activity, since during work the metabolism in the muscles increases, which means oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide release.

Stopping breathing that occurs as a result of a decrease in carbon dioxide in the blood is called apnea.

Disruption of the breathing rhythm - shortness of breath and increased breathing - occurs due to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood - dyspnea.

When climbing greater height may develop altitude sickness- pulse and breathing increase, headache, weakness, etc. The reason is oxygen starvation. Caisson disease - when working underwater or in caissons, where there is high atmospheric pressure. One type of respiratory regulation disorder is Chain-Stokes breathing, which occurs when the excitability of the respiratory center decreases.

Asphyxia or suffocation occurs when the supply of oxygen is stopped, or when the tissues are unable to use oxygen. When breathing stops - artificial respiration.

Features of breathing regulation in childhood. By the time a child is born, his respiratory center is able to ensure a rhythmic change in the phases of the respiratory cycle (inhalation and exhalation), but not as perfectly as in older children. This is due to the fact that at the time of birth the functional formation of the respiratory center has not yet completed. This is evidenced by the great variability in the frequency, depth, and rhythm of breathing in young children. The excitability of the respiratory center in newborns and infants is low.

Formation functional activity respiratory center occurs with age. By the age of 11, the ability to adapt breathing to various living conditions is already well expressed. It should be noted that during puberty, temporary disturbances in the regulation of breathing occur, and the body of adolescents is less resistant to oxygen deficiency than the body of an adult.

As the cerebral cortex matures, the ability to voluntarily change breathing improves - to suppress respiratory movements or produce maximum ventilation of the lungs. Children cannot physical activity significantly change the depth of breathing, and increase breathing speed. Breathing becomes even more frequent and shallow. This results in lower ventilation efficiency, especially in young children. breathing gymnastics health humoral

Teaching children to breathe correctly when walking, running and other activities is one of the tasks of the educator. One of the conditions correct breathing- This is a concern for the development of the chest. For this it is important correct position bodies. It is necessary to teach children to walk and stand with a straight posture, as this helps expand the chest, facilitates the functioning of the lungs and ensures deeper breathing. When the body is bent, less air enters the body.

To educate children to breathe correctly through the nose in a state of relative rest, during work and when performing physical exercise is given great attention in the process of physical education. Breathing exercises, swimming, rowing, skating, and skiing especially help improve breathing.

Breathing exercises have great health benefits. When you inhale calmly and deeply, intrathoracic pressure decreases as the diaphragm moves downward. The influx is increasing venous blood to the right atrium, which facilitates the work of the heart. The diaphragm, which lowers during inhalation, massages the liver and upper organs abdominal cavity, helps remove metabolic products from them, and from the liver - venous stagnation of blood and bile.

During deep exhalation, the diaphragm rises, which increases the outflow of venous blood from lower limbs, pelvic and abdominal areas. As a result, blood circulation is facilitated. At the same time deep exhalation is happening light massage heart and improving its blood supply.

In breathing exercises there are three main types of breathing, called according to the form of execution - chest, abdominal and full breathing. Considered to be the most beneficial for health full breath. There are various breathing exercises.

What goals do we pursue when conducting breathing exercises with children? What is the significance of this gymnastics in children's health?

Human health, physical and mental health largely depend on breathing. mental activity. The respiratory function is extremely important for the normal functioning of the body, since the increased metabolism of a growing organism is associated with increased gas exchange. However respiratory system did not reach the child full development. Children's breathing is shallow and rapid. Children should be taught to breathe correctly, deeply and evenly, and not to hold their breath during muscular work. We need to remind children to breathe through their nose. This is very important, since the atmospheric air in the nasal passages is cleaned, warmed and moistened. When breathing through the nose, much more air enters the child's lungs than when breathing through the mouth. For example, breathing rate and breathing alternately through the right and left nostril affects brain functions. The fitness of the respiratory muscles determines physical performance and human endurance: as soon as an unprepared person runs a few tens of meters, he begins to quicken his breathing and feel shortness of breath due to the poor development of the respiratory muscles. Breathing exercises help to effectively solve the problem of strengthening the respiratory muscles of children in order to increase their resistance to colds and other diseases, as well as endurance during physical activity.

From all of the above, we can conclude what a huge role it plays breathing exercises in the hardening and healing of children and how important it is to approach this task thoughtfully and responsibly.

2. Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the airways (nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi)………………………………………………………3

5. The mechanism of inhalation and exhalation…………………………………………… …….....11

General characteristics and age characteristics
respiratory system

Structure, functions and age characteristics
airways (nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi)

Structure, functions and age-related characteristics of the lungs

Breathing regulation

The meaning of breathing. Structure and functions of the respiratory system.

Age-related features of the respiratory system.

1. The meaning of breathing. Structure and functions of the respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of the following organs: nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

The main function of the respiratory system is related to the intake of oxygen into the body and the release of carbon dioxide. Respiration is the process of providing the body's cells with oxygen necessary for the oxidative processes of energy metabolism, which constitute the essence of tissue respiration. The respiratory system itself provides so-called external respiration and gas exchange between the lungs and blood, which occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Blood acts as transport system for gases.

In addition to the described function, the respiratory system is associated with:

the function of protecting the body from dust and microorganisms (mucus secreted by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium and the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract itself, which relieves us of protective mucus along with dust and microorganisms);

protective reflexes of sneezing and coughing;

function of bringing the inhaled air temperature closer to the temperature internal environment body (abundant blood supply to the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract);

function of humidification of inhaled air;

function of removing metabolic products (carbon dioxide, water vapor, etc.);

odor discrimination function (olfactory receptors).

I would especially like to note the importance of nasal breathing. When breathing through the nose, cells of a special neuroepithelium associated with the brain are irritated. Irritation of these cells contributes to the development of the child’s brain (which is why nasal breathing is so important for children and obstacles such as polyps and adenoids need to be removed), affects our performance, mood, and affects behavior. To verify this, just remember how you felt during a runny nose. For symmetrical irritation of the neuroepithelium of the right and left half of the nasal cavity, it is also necessary to avoid curvature of the nasal septum, which easily occurs in children due to mechanical trauma to the nose.

2. Age-related characteristics of the respiratory system

The mucous membranes of the respiratory tract in children are thin, tender, dry (little mucus is secreted), are abundantly supplied with blood, and contain many lymphatic vessels. They are easily injured, the protective function is less pronounced than in adults. Therefore, children often experience inflammation of the respiratory tract, which makes nasal breathing difficult. This is accompanied by oxygen starvation, because oxygen saturation of the blood begins already in the nasal cavity. Breathing through the mouth creates even more favorable conditions for infection to enter the body. The most common route of transmission of infection in children's groups is airborne droplets. In children's institutions, it is especially important to monitor the sanitary and hygienic condition of the premises (wet cleaning, ventilation, clean air), as well as to monitor compliance with the regulations for the daily mandatory stay of children in the fresh air.

The upper respiratory tract in children is narrower than in adults, and if they are also closed by adenoids, polyps, excess mucus during inflammatory processes, then the child’s body suffers from a lack of oxygen (especially the brain), the pronunciation of sounds is impaired, and there may even be a violation of mental development (see above the functions of the neuroepithelium of the nasal cavity). An adenoid type of face is formed - an open mouth, puffiness and a dull expression on the face.

The child's lungs are abundantly supplied with lymphatic vessels, which makes frequent inflammatory processes possible. Lung development ends by age 7, followed by lung growth.

The functionality of the lungs is largely determined by the shape of the chest. Until about 6 years of age, it has a cone-shaped shape with almost horizontal ribs, which makes it difficult to ventilate the lungs. Breathing is shallow. The small volume of the chest, and therefore the lungs, also does not contribute to gas exchange. However, intensive growth requires sufficient oxygen supply to the cells. This is possible due to the high speed of blood flow and breathing rate.

The shape of the chest changes at about 6 years of age. It becomes barrel-shaped with oblique ribs, which significantly affects the ventilation of the lungs and allows you to reduce the frequency of respiratory movements.

The frequency of respiratory movements decreases with age: in newborns – 30-44 breaths. movement in min.; at 5 years – 26 breaths. movement in min.; in teenagers – 18 breaths. movement in min.; for boys - 16 breaths. movement per minute Breathing becomes deeper with age.

For proper development The respiratory system requires physical exercise and sports. At the same time, the respiratory muscles develop, voluntary and involuntary regulation of breathing is trained, correct posture is formed, the functionality of the respiratory system increases, and, therefore, the oxygenation of cells and tissues, the metabolism in them. All this has a beneficial effect on the growth and development of the child’s body.

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• The meaning of breathing
• Breathing movements
• Conclusion
• Literature

The meaning of breathing

Breathing is a process of constant exchange of gases between the body and the environment, necessary for life. Breathing ensures a constant supply of oxygen to the body, which is necessary for the implementation of oxidative processes, which are the main source of energy.

Oxygen from the external environment enters the lungs. There, as is already known, the conversion of venous blood into arterial blood occurs. Arterial blood, flowing through capillaries great circle blood circulation, releases oxygen through tissue fluid cells that are washed by it, and the carbon dioxide released by the cells enters the blood. The release of carbon dioxide by the blood into the atmospheric air also occurs in the lungs.

It is clear that stopping the supply of oxygen to cells at least for a very long time a short time leads to their death. That is why the constant supply of this gas from the environment - necessary condition life of the organism.

The importance of breathing for a person is enormous. In fact, a person can live without food for several weeks, without water for several days, and without oxygen for only 5 minutes.

The act of breathing consists of three processes:

1. External or pulmonary respiration - the exchange of gases between the body and the environment.

2. Internal or tissue respiration occurring in cells.

3. Transport of gases by blood, i.e. transfer of oxygen from the blood to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

breathing alveoli respiratory organ

Structure and functions of the respiratory organs and their age-related characteristics

The human respiratory system is divided into:

· Airways include the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi.

· Respiratory part or lungs - consists of a parenchymal formation, which is divided into alveolar vesicles in which gas exchange occurs.

All parts of the respiratory system undergo significant structural transformations with age, which determines the breathing characteristics of the child’s body at different stages of development.

The airways and respiratory part begin with the nasal cavity. Air enters through the nostrils, the nasal cavity is divided into two halves, and at the back, with the help of the choanae, it communicates with the nasopharynx. The walls of the nasal cavity are formed by bones and cartilage, lined with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is abundantly supplied with blood vessels and covered with stratified ciliated epithelium.

Passing through the nasal cavity, the air is warmed, moistened and purified. In the nasal cavity there are olfactory bulbs, thanks to which a person perceives smell.

By the time of birth, the child’s nasal cavity is underdeveloped; it is distinguished by narrow nasal openings and the virtual absence of paranasal sinuses, the final formation of which occurs in adolescence. The volume of the nasal cavity increases 2.5 times with age. The structural features of the nasal cavity of young children make nasal breathing difficult; children often breathe with their mouths open, which leads to susceptibility to colds. Adenoids may be a factor in this. A “stuffy” nose affects speech - nasal sound. Mouth breathing causes oxygen starvation, congestion in the chest and cranium, deformation of the chest, decreased hearing, frequent otitis media, bronchitis, abnormal (high) development of the hard palate, disruption of the nasal septum and the shape of the lower jaw. Connected to the nasal cavity are the airborne sinuses of the adjacent bones - the paranasal sinuses. Inflammatory processes can develop in the paranasal sinuses: sinusitis - inflammation of the maxillary, maxillary paranasal sinus; frontal sinusitis - inflammation of the frontal sinus.

From the nasal cavity, air enters the nasopharynx, and then into the oral and laryngeal parts of the pharynx.

The child's pharynx is shorter and wider, as well as the low location of the auditory tube. The structural features of the nasopharynx lead to the fact that diseases of the upper respiratory tract in children are often complicated by inflammation of the middle ear. Disease of the tonsil glands located in the pharynx also seriously affects the health of children. Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. Adenoids are one of the types of diseases of the tonsil glands - an enlargement of the third tonsil.

The next link in the airways is the larynx. The larynx is located on the front surface of the neck, at the level of 4-6 cervical vertebrae, on both sides of it are the lobes of the thyroid gland, and behind it is the pharynx. The larynx is shaped like a funnel. Its skeleton is formed by paired and unpaired cartilage, connected by joints, ligaments and muscles. Unpaired cartilages - thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid. Paired cartilages - corniculate, arytenoid. The epiglottis covers the entrance to the larynx during swallowing. The inside of the larynx is covered with a mucous membrane with ciliated epithelium. The larynx serves to conduct air and at the same time is an organ of sound production, in which two vocal cords participate, these are mucous folds consisting of elastic connective fibers. The ligaments are stretched between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages, and limit the glottis.

In children, the larynx is shorter, narrower and higher than in adults. The larynx grows most intensively in the 1-3 years of life and during puberty - in boys an Adam's apple is formed, the vocal cords lengthen, the larynx becomes wider and longer than in girls, and the voice breaks.

The mucous membrane of the airways is more abundantly supplied with blood vessels, is tender and vulnerable, and contains fewer mucous glands that protect it from damage.

The trachea extends from the lower edge of the larynx. The trachea is about 12 cm long (its length increases in accordance with the growth of the body, maximum accelerated growth at 14 - 16 years), consists of cartilaginous half-rings. The posterior wall of the trachea is soft and adjacent to the esophagus. The inside is lined with a mucous membrane containing glands that secrete mucus. From the neck area, the trachea passes into the chest cavity and is divided into two bronchi, wider and shorter on the left, and narrower and longer on the right. The bronchi enter the lungs and there they divide into bronchi of smaller diameter - bronchioles, which are divided into even smaller ones, forming the bronchial tree, which in turn forms the hilum of the lungs. There are two lungs in the chest cavity; they have the shape of a cone. On the side of each lung facing the heart, there are depressions - the gates of the lung, through which the bronchus, lung nerve, blood and lymphatic vessels pass. The bronchus branches in each lung. The bronchi, like the trachea, contain cartilage in their walls. The smallest branches of the bronchi are bronchioles; they do not have cartilage, but are equipped with muscle fibers and are capable of narrowing.

The lungs are located in the chest. Each lung is covered with a serous membrane - the pleura. The pleura consists of two sheets: the parietal sheet is adjacent to the chest, the intranosal sheet is fused with the lung. Between the two sheets there is a space - the pleural cavity, filled with serous fluid, which facilitates the sliding of the pleural sheets during respiratory movements. There is no air in the pleural cavity and the pressure there is negative. The pleural cavity does not communicate with each other.

The right lung consists of three, and the left of two lobes. Each section of the lung consists of segments: in the right - 11 segments, in the left - 10 segments. Each segment in turn consists of many pulmonary lobes. The structural unit is the acenus - the terminal part of the bronchiole with alveolar vesicles. The bronchioles turn into expansion - alveolar ducts, on the walls of which there are protrusions - alveoli. which are the final part of the respiratory tract. The walls of the pulmonary vesicles consist of single-layer squamous epithelium and are adjacent to capillaries. Gas exchange occurs through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries: oxygen enters the blood from the alveoli, and carbon dioxide returns back. There are up to 350 million alveoli in the lungs, and their surface reaches 150 m2.

The large surface area of ​​the alveoli promotes better gas exchange

In children, the lungs grow due to an increase in the volume of the alveoli (in newborns, the diameter of the alveoli is 0.07 mm, in adults it reaches 0.2 mm). Increased lung growth occurs up to three years of age. The number of alveoli by the age of 8 reaches the number in an adult. At the age of 3 to 7 years, the growth rate of the lungs is reduced. The alveoli grow especially vigorously after the age of 12; by this age the volume of the lungs increases 10 times compared to a newborn, and by the end of puberty 20 times. Accordingly, gas exchange in the lungs changes, an increase in the total surface of the alveoli leads to an increase in the diffusion capabilities of the lungs.

Breathing movements

The exchange of gases between atmospheric air and the air in the alveoli occurs due to the rhythmic alternation of the acts of inhalation and exhalation.

There is no muscle tissue in the lungs, they actively contract, they cannot. The respiratory muscles play an active role in the act of inhalation and exhalation. When they are paralyzed, breathing becomes impossible, although the respiratory organs are not affected.

Inhalation is carried out as follows: under the influence of nerve impulses from the chest and diaphragm, the intercostal muscles lift the ribs and move them slightly to the side, thereby increasing the volume of the chest. When the diaphragm contracts, its dome flattens, which also leads to an increase in the volume of the chest. When breathing deeply, other muscles of the chest and neck are also involved. The lungs are located in a hermetically sealed chest and move passively behind its moving walls, since they are attached to the chest with the help of the pleura. This is facilitated by negative pressure in the chest. When you inhale, the lungs stretch, the pressure in them drops and becomes below atmospheric pressure, and outside air rushes into the lungs. When you exhale, the muscles relax, the ribs drop, the volume of the chest decreases, the lungs contract, the pressure in them increases and air rushes out. The depth of inspiration depends on the expansion of the chest during inhalation. For the act of breathing, the condition of the lung tissue, which has elasticity, i.e., is very important. Lung tissue has a certain resistance to stretching.

Types breathing. As the musculoskeletal apparatus of the respiratory system matures, and the characteristics of its development in boys and girls determine age and gender differences in breathing types. In young children, the ribs have a slight bend and occupy an almost horizontal position. The upper ribs and shoulder girdle are located high, the intercostal muscles are weak. In this regard, newborns breathe diaphragmatically. As the intercostal muscles develop and the child grows, the chest goes down, the ribs take on an oblique position - the child's breathing becomes thoraco-abdominal with a predominance of the diaphragmatic. At the age of 3 to 7 years, chest breathing predominates. And at the age of 7-8 years, gender differences in the type of breathing are revealed. In boys, the abdominal type predominates, and in girls, the thoracic type predominates. Sexual differentiation ends by the age of 14-17 years. The types of breathing in boys and girls can change depending on sports and work activity.

Age-related features of the structure of the chest and muscles determine the features of the depth and frequency of breathing in childhood. In a calm state, an adult makes 16-20 breathing movements per minute, 500 ml is inhaled per breath. air. The volume of air characterizes the depth of breathing.

The newborn's breathing is rapid and shallow. In children of the first year of life, the respiratory rate is 50-60 respiratory movements per minute, 1-2 years 30-40 respiratory movements per minute, 2-4 years 25-35 respiratory movements per minute, 4-6 years 23-26 respiratory movements per minute . In school-age children, there is a further decrease in the breathing rate, 18-20 respiratory movements per minute. The high frequency of respiratory movements in a child ensures high ventilation of the lungs. The volume of exhaled air in a child at 1 month of life is 30 ml, at 1 year - 70 ml, at 6 years - 156 ml, at 10 years - 240 ml, at 14 years - 300 ml. Minute breathing volume is the amount of air that a person exhales in 1 minute; the more often the breathing, the higher the minute volume.

Life capacity lungs. An important characteristic of the functioning of the respiratory system is the vital capacity of the lungs (VC) - the largest amount of air that a person can exhale after a deep breath. Vital capacity changes with age and depends on body length, the degree of development of the chest and respiratory muscles, and gender. During quiet breathing, about 500 cm 3 of air enters the lungs in one breath - respiratory air. With maximum inhalation after a quiet exhalation, an average of 1500 cm 3 of air enters the lungs more than with a quiet inhalation - additional volume. With maximum exhalation after a normal inhalation, 1500 cm 3 more air can come out of the lungs than during a normal exhalation - the reserve volume. All these three types of volume - respiratory, additional, reserve - together make up vital capacity: 500 cm 3 +1500 cm 3 +1500 cm 3 = 3500 cm 3. After exhalation, even the deepest, about 100 cm 3 of air remains in the lungs - residual air, it remains even in the lungs of a corpse, a breathing child or an adult. Air enters the lungs with the first breath after birth. Vital vital capacity is determined using a special device - a spirometer. Typically, vital capacity is greater in men than in women. Trained people have a higher vital capacity than untrained people. A child's vital capacity can be determined with his conscious participation only after 4-5 years.

Respiratory center. Regulation of breathing is carried out by the central nervous system, special areas of which determine automatic breathing - alternating inhalation and exhalation and voluntary breathing, providing adaptive changes in the respiratory system that correspond to the situation and type of activity. The activity of the respiratory center is regulated reflexively, by impulses coming from various receptors and humorally. The respiratory center is a group of nerve cells that are located in the medulla oblongata; its destruction leads to respiratory arrest. In the respiratory center there are two sections: the inhalation section and the exhalation section, the functions of which are interconnected. When the inhalation department is excited, the exhalation department is inhibited and vice versa. Special clusters of nerve cells in the pons and diencephalon are involved in the regulation of breathing. In the spinal cord there is a group of cells, the processes of which go into the spinal nerves to the respiratory muscles. In the respiratory center, excitation alternates with inhibition. When you inhale, the lungs expand and their walls stretch, which irritates the endings of the vagus nerve. Excitation is transmitted to the respiratory center and inhibits its activity. The muscles stop receiving stimulation from the respiratory center and relax, the chest drops, its volume decreases, and exhalation occurs. When relaxed, the centripetal fibers of the vagus nerve cease to be excited, and the respiratory center does not receive inhibitory impulses; it is excited again - the next inhalation occurs. Thus, a kind of self-regulation occurs: inhalation causes exhalation, and exhalation causes inhalation.

The activity of the respiratory center is also regulated humorally, changing depending on the chemical composition of the blood. The reason for changes in the activity of the respiratory center is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. It is a specific respiratory stimulant: an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood leads to stimulation of the respiratory center - breathing becomes frequent and deep. This continues until the level of carbon dioxide in the blood decreases to normal. The respiratory center responds to a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood by decreasing excitability until it completely stops its activity for some time. The leading physiological mechanism affecting the respiratory center is reflex, followed by humoral. Breathing is subordinate to the cerebral cortex, as evidenced by the fact of voluntary holding of breath or changes in the frequency and depth of breathing, increased breathing during emotional states of a person. Excitation of the respiratory center can also cause a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood. Defensive acts such as coughing and sneezing are also associated with breathing; they are carried out reflexively. A cough occurs in response to irritation of the mucous membrane of the larynx, pharynx or bronchi. And sneezing is due to irritation of the nasal mucosa. Gas exchange increases sharply during physical activity, since during work the metabolism in the muscles increases, which means oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide release. Features of breathing regulation in childhood. By the time a child is born, his respiratory center is able to ensure a rhythmic change in the phases of the respiratory cycle (inhalation and exhalation), but not as perfectly as in older children. This is due to the fact that at the time of birth the functional formation of the respiratory center has not yet completed. This is evidenced by the great variability in the frequency, depth, and rhythm of breathing in young children. The excitability of the respiratory center in newborns and infants is low. The formation of the functional activity of the respiratory center occurs with age. By the age of 11, the ability to adapt breathing to various living conditions is already well expressed. It should be noted that during puberty, temporary disturbances in the regulation of breathing occur, and the body of adolescents is less resistant to oxygen deficiency than the body of an adult.

As the cerebral cortex matures, the ability to voluntarily change breathing improves - to suppress respiratory movements or produce maximum ventilation of the lungs. Children cannot significantly change the depth of breathing during physical activity, but rather increase their breathing speed. Breathing becomes even more frequent and shallow. This results in lower ventilation efficiency, especially in young children.

Hygienic requirements for the air environment of educational institutions

The hygienic properties of the air environment are determined not only by its chemical composition, but also physical condition: temperature, humidity, pressure, mobility, atmospheric electric field voltage, solar radiation, etc. For normal human life great value has a constant temperature of the body and the environment, which affects the equilibrium of the processes of heat generation and heat transfer. High ambient temperatures make it difficult to transfer heat, which leads to an increase in body temperature. At the same time, the pulse and breathing increase, fatigue increases, and performance decreases. A person’s presence in conditions of high relative humidity also complicates heat transfer and increases sweating. At low temperatures There is a large heat loss, which can lead to hypothermia. At high air humidity and low temperature there is a risk of hypothermia and colds increases significantly. In addition, heat loss by the body depends on the speed of air movement and the body itself (riding an open car, bicycle, etc.). Electrical and magnetic field atmospheres also affect humans. For example, negative air particles have a positive effect on the body (relieve fatigue, increase performance), while positive ions, on the contrary, depress breathing, etc. Negative air ions are more mobile and are called light, while positive ions are less mobile and are called heavy. In clean air, light ions predominate, and as it becomes polluted, they settle on dust particles and water droplets, turning into heavy ones. Therefore, the air becomes warm, stuffy and stuffy. The air contains impurities of different origins: dust, smoke, various gases. All this negatively affects the health of people, animals and plant life. In addition to dust, the air also contains microorganisms - bacteria, spores, molds, etc. There are especially many of them in indoors.

Microclimate of school premises. Microclimate is the totality of physicochemical and biological properties of the air environment. For a school, this environment consists of its premises, for a city - its territory, etc. Hygienically normal air in school - important condition student performance and performance. At long stay in a classroom or office of 35-40 students the air stops responding hygienic requirements. Change it chemical composition, physical properties and bacterial contamination. All these indicators increase sharply towards the end of the lessons.

An indirect indicator of indoor air pollution is the carbon dioxide content. The maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of carbon dioxide in school premises is 0.1%, but at a lower concentration (0.08%) in children younger ages there is a decrease in the level of attention and concentration.

Most favorable conditions in the classroom are a temperature of 16-18°C and a relative humidity of 30-60%. At these standards, performance remains the longest and wellness students. In this case, the difference in air temperature vertically and horizontally should not exceed 2-3°C, and the air speed should not exceed 0.1-0.2 m/s.

In the gym, recreational areas, and workshops, the air temperature should be maintained at 14-15°C. The calculated norms of air volume per student in a class (the so-called air cube) usually do not exceed 4.5-6 cubic meters. m. But to ensure that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the classroom air during the lesson does not exceed 0.1%, a 10-12 year old child needs about 16 cubic meters. m of air. At the age of 14-16 years, the need for it increases to 25-26 cubic meters. m. This value is called the volume of ventilation: the older the student, the greater it is. To ensure the specified volume, a three-fold change of air is required, which is achieved by ventilation (ventilation) of the room.

Natural ventilation. The influx of outside air into the room due to the difference in temperature and pressure through the pores and cracks in building material or through specially made openings is called natural ventilation. To ventilate classrooms of this type, windows and transoms are used. The latter have an advantage over vents, since the outside air first flows upward through the open transom, to the ceiling, where it warms up and descends warmly. At the same time, people in the room do not become hypothermic and feel an influx of fresh air. Transoms can be left open during classes, even in winter.

Square open windows or transoms should not be less than 1/50 of the class floor area - this is the so-called ventilation coefficient. Airing of classrooms should be carried out regularly, after each lesson. The most effective is through ventilation, when during recess the vents (or windows) and classroom doors are opened simultaneously. Through ventilation allows you to reduce the CO2 concentration to normal in 5 minutes, reduce humidity, the number of microorganisms and improve the ionic composition of the air. However, with such ventilation there should be no children in the room. Special attention attention is paid to ventilation of offices, chemical, physical and biological laboratories, where toxic gases and vapors may remain after experiments.

Artificial ventilation. This is supply, exhaust and supply and exhaust (mixed) ventilation with natural or mechanical impulse. Such ventilation is most often installed where it is necessary to remove exhaust air and gases generated during experiments. It is called forced ventilation, since the air is exhausted outside using special exhaust ducts that have several holes under the ceiling of the room. Air from the premises is directed to the attic and through pipes removed outside, where to enhance the air flow in the exhaust ducts, thermal stimulators of air movement - deflectors or electric fans - are installed. The installation of this type of ventilation is provided during the construction of buildings. Exhaust ventilation should work especially well in restrooms, wardrobes, and the cafeteria, so that the air and odors of these rooms do not penetrate into classrooms and other main and service areas.

Conclusion

· Breathing is one of the basic processes of functioning and vital activity of the human body; without breathing, life can last only a few minutes.

· The breathing process is a complex system of gas exchange between the body and the environment and includes mechanisms for partial processing of inhaled gases by the human respiratory system.

· The human respiratory organs change during a person’s growing up and life, as well as under the influence of external factors.

Literature

1. A.G. Khripkova, M.V. Antropova, D.A. Farber "Age physiology and school hygiene"Enlightenment 1990

2. Yu.A. Ermolaev "Age physiology" Enlightenment 1976

3. N.N. Leontyeva, K.V. Marinova, E.G. Kaplun "Anatomy and physiology of the child's body" Higher school 1985

4. N.V. Poltavtseva, N.A. Gordova "Physical education in preschool childhood"

5. E.A. Vorobyova, A.V. Gubar, E.B. Safyannikov "Anatomy and Physiology" Medicine 1975

6. http://med-tutorial.ru/med-books/book/59/

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1. The meaning of breathing. Structure and functions of the respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of the following organs: nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

The main function of the respiratory system is related to the intake of oxygen into the body and the release of carbon dioxide. Respiration is the process of providing the body's cells with oxygen necessary for the oxidative processes of energy metabolism, which constitute the essence of tissue respiration. The respiratory system itself provides so-called external respiration and gas exchange between the lungs and blood, which occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Blood acts as a transport system for gases.

In addition to the described function, the respiratory system is associated with:

the function of protecting the body from dust and microorganisms (mucus secreted by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium and the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract itself, which relieves us of protective mucus along with dust and microorganisms);

protective reflexes of sneezing and coughing;

the function of bringing the temperature of inhaled air closer to the temperature of the internal environment of the body (abundant blood supply to the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract);

function of humidification of inhaled air;

function of removing metabolic products (carbon dioxide, water vapor, etc.);

odor discrimination function (olfactory receptors).

I would especially like to note the importance of nasal breathing. When breathing through the nose, cells of a special neuroepithelium associated with the brain are irritated. Irritation of these cells contributes to the development of the child’s brain (which is why nasal breathing is so important for children and obstacles such as polyps and adenoids need to be removed), affects our performance, mood, and affects behavior. To verify this, just remember how you felt during a runny nose. For symmetrical irritation of the neuroepithelium of the right and left half of the nasal cavity, it is also necessary to avoid curvature of the nasal septum, which easily occurs in children due to mechanical trauma to the nose.

2. Age-related characteristics of the respiratory system

The mucous membranes of the respiratory tract in children are thin, tender, dry (little mucus is secreted), are abundantly supplied with blood, and contain many lymphatic vessels. They are easily injured, the protective function is less pronounced than in adults. Therefore, children often experience inflammation of the respiratory tract, which makes nasal breathing difficult. This is accompanied by oxygen starvation, because oxygen saturation of the blood begins already in the nasal cavity. Breathing through the mouth creates even more favorable conditions for infection to enter the body. The most common route of transmission of infection in children's groups is airborne droplets. In children's institutions, it is especially important to monitor the sanitary and hygienic condition of the premises (wet cleaning, ventilation, clean air), as well as to monitor compliance with the regulations for the daily mandatory stay of children in the fresh air.

The upper respiratory tract in children is narrower than in adults, and if they are also closed by adenoids, polyps, or excess mucus during inflammatory processes, then the child’s body suffers from a lack of oxygen (especially the brain), the pronunciation of sounds is impaired, and even mental development may be impaired (see above the function of the neuroepithelium of the nasal cavity). An adenoid type of face is formed - an open mouth, puffiness and a dull expression on the face.

The child's lungs are abundantly supplied with lymphatic vessels, which makes frequent inflammatory processes possible. Lung development ends by age 7, followed by lung growth.

The functionality of the lungs is largely determined by the shape of the chest. Until about 6 years of age, it has a cone-shaped shape with almost horizontal ribs, which makes it difficult to ventilate the lungs. Breathing is shallow. The small volume of the chest, and therefore the lungs, also does not contribute to gas exchange. However, intensive growth requires sufficient oxygen supply to the cells. This is possible due to the high speed of blood flow and breathing rate.

The shape of the chest changes at about 6 years of age. It becomes barrel-shaped with oblique ribs, which significantly affects the ventilation of the lungs and allows you to reduce the frequency of respiratory movements.

The frequency of respiratory movements decreases with age: in newborns – 30-44 breaths. movement in min.; at 5 years – 26 breaths. movement in min.; in teenagers – 18 breaths. movement in min.; for boys - 16 breaths. movement per minute Breathing becomes deeper with age.

For the proper development of the respiratory system, physical exercise and sports are necessary. At the same time, the respiratory muscles develop, voluntary and involuntary regulation of breathing is trained, correct posture is formed, the functionality of the respiratory system increases, and, therefore, the oxygenation of cells and tissues, the metabolism in them. All this has a beneficial effect on the growth and development of the child’s body.