Mamaichuk I.I. Psychocorrectional technologies for children with developmental problems - file n1.doc. History of the development of psychological assistance to children with developmental problems

Rogers' triad.
Client-centered counseling and psychotherapy in which two individuals enter into an alliance with the goal of personal growth, as well as the search for more satisfactory ways of behaving in various life situations and cases - this is the philosophy of a humanist psychologist.
Based on the innate positive potential for development and growth of the client, the psychologist, using the resources and internal focus of assessing the client himself, leads him to self-realization of all the best that the client has. Without attaching a diagnosis and a label to the client, the psychologist positively predicts the client’s self-development and personal growth, due to the client’s sincere respect and trust in him as an independent human being (I myself). Ways to help people who are experiencing difficulties difficult life, diverse. I prefer this approach to a person; this way of communication can have its own reality: to give the client the opportunity to experience faith. hope. self-love and wisdom.
"Rogers, author of client-centered counseling in psychotherapy, points out the necessary conditions successful psychological counseling, which is generally quite independent of the private characteristics of the client himself.
Three conditions for successful psychological counseling.
1. Congruence, or authenticity, of a psychologist means: the need for the psychologist to correctly symbolize him own experience(unconscious events, phenomena of consciousness) in the “here and now” situation, be open to experience both to your own and to the client’s experience, as well as awareness of this experience in your social circle.
Openness to experience means that every stimulus (and internal or external motive) is not distorted by defense mechanisms (socially desirable and emotionally charged).
Awareness is the symbolic representation by verbal and non-verbal (facial expressions, pantomime, etc.) symbols of some part of experience. empty.gif
If a psychologist experiences threat or discomfort in a relationship with a client or himself, then he will not be congruent (authentic) in this relationship and psychological counseling will not be complete.
2. When interacting with a client, a consultant psychologist experiences an unconditional positive assessment in the social circle. Warmth, affection, respect, sympathy, acceptance and other high positive attitudes and feelings during the session cause certain positive actions and thoughts.
Actions and thoughts can be assessed differently, but acceptance. the individual's recognition does not depend on them.
The psychologist values ​​the client’s personality as a whole; he equally feels and shows an unconditional positive assessment of both those experiences that the client himself is afraid or ashamed of, and those with which he is pleased or satisfied.
3. The psychologist empathically perceives the client.
To have empathy means to perceive the subjective world, covering the entire complex of sensations, perceptions and memories of another, accessible to consciousness in this moment. This means - to feel the pain or pleasure of another as he himself feels them, and even to the reasons for this pain or pleasure that gave rise to them, but at the same time not for a minute forget that it is “as if” (if this condition is lost , That this state becomes a state of identification or the emergence of countertransference).
Knowledge of the client’s subjective world, obtained empathically, leads to an understanding of the basis of his process of personality change (client and psychologist). As noted, K.R. Rogers: “some imperfect people are capable of providing psychotherapeutic assistance to other, also imperfect people” [Psychotherapeutic Encyclopedia, edited by B.D. Karvasarsky M. "Peter" 2006.p.841. ]

Let's talk about self-development and what it is.

Psychology gives this definition:

Self-development is a process comprehensive development personality through self-study and application of the information received, an individual creative approach to tasks, without constant external influence.

Self-improvement is a process of conscious development controlled by the individual himself, in which, for the subjective purposes and interests of the individual himself, his qualities and abilities are purposefully formed and developed.

So, in both definitions we're talking about about a person’s personality, we develop and improve it. What is personality? Let's look at the definition:

Personality is a set of developed habits and preferences, mental attitude and tone, experience and acquired knowledge, a set of psychophysical traits and characteristics of a person, his archetype, which determine everyday behavior and connection with society and nature. Also, personality is observed as manifestations of masks created for different situations And social groups interactions.

Let's analyze it. It turns out that we develop our habits, experience and set of masks - everything that determines our everyday behavior and response - this is what we call “personal growth”. That is, we are engaged in the development and improvement of what we are trying to get rid of, what we want to correct in ourselves. Is this why you go to personal growth trainings?

You can say that by self-development and self-improvement we mean the correction of all this. Let's start by correcting our habits. How to correct one bad habit through self-development? Let's reveal a little secret: for this you need to solve everything psychological reasons associated with the formation of this habit, and this is not so easy, since the reasons for its occurrence have gone deep into the unconscious sphere and cannot be solved by developing willpower, but only by finding and fully working through the problems that caused this habit. These include unresolved episodes from the past, destructive ways of responding, acquired knowledge, beliefs associated with habit, conflict between behavioral masks and other components of personality that we improve rather than get rid of.

Taking control of your own passions and desires needs to be discussed separately. Have you decided that your desires, what you shove back into yourself, because you are inconvenient to do as you want, will sit there and not twitch? This is not so, our subconscious is designed in such a way that it remembers everything and all your ignored or self-prohibited needs go straight to the subconscious, but try to get out of there, even if you try not to notice them, giving rise to psychosomatic diseases.

A little about knowledge, social and interpersonal experience, which we also frantically develop and improve. The amount of knowledge and experience determines how we perceive the world. If there is little knowledge, then this window becomes like a loophole through which a person does not talk to the world, but shoots back from the world. If you've read books about life after death, forgiving everyone and everything, and other tolerant bullshit, your window is a little larger, but it's still a window. After all, you interact with people, react to events depending on your experience and knowledge, and everyone has their own. Sometimes it is difficult to determine under the influence of what knowledge you reacted this time, because the reason may lie deep in the subconscious in a forgotten episode of the past. That is why many people ask the question “How to get rid of the past?” This is how we find ourselves hostage to our own knowledge.

Successful “self-development”!

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Tags: Congruence Unconditional positive assessment towards the client

History of development psychological assistance children with developmental problems is inseparable from the history of their study in psychology, defectology and psychiatry and other sciences. Conventionally, four main periods of development can be distinguished.

The first period is descriptive, including medical and pedagogical problems of correcting abnormal development.

Throughout the history of its study, teachers, doctors, and psychologists have shown great interest in the problem of abnormal child development. The development of medical and philosophical knowledge created the opportunity to approach the understanding of the process of mental development of abnormal children from a scientific position.

Most of the works of doctors and teachers of the 19th century were devoted to the psychology of mentally retarded children. These patients were isolated from the general mass of mentally ill people in separate group. Many psychiatrists and psychologists of that period tried to develop a classification of physiological and social reasons intellectual defect in children. A special role in the study of children with intellectual disabilities belongs to the French physician and teacher of the mid-19th century, Edouard Seguin (1812-1880). He was the first to try to isolate the most significant defects in mental retardation, emphasized the decisive role of violations of the child’s volitional activity in the formation of the defect, and gave special meaning development of sense organs in people with intellectual disabilities. Seguin organized a boarding school for mentally retarded children, where he sought to implement his ideas in the field of therapeutic pedagogy. Unfortunately, in Russian defectology and psychology, insufficient attention is paid to the research of this great humanist scientist, while his works are relevant in our time. In his monograph “Education, Hygiene and Moral Treatment of Mentally Retarded Children,” E. Seguin presented an ideal picture of an institution in which children with mental retardation are brought up, noting the important role of social education of a deeply retarded child and emphasizing that the path of development of mentally retarded children lies through cooperation , through the social assistance of another person (E. Seguin, 1903). The author proposed an integrated approach to raising children with intellectual disabilities. However, E. Seguin went down in history not only as a specialist who studied the features mental development for intellectual disabilities. He is the author of original methods for diagnosing and correcting perceptual and mental development children with intellectual disabilities. These methods undoubtedly have practical significance and today. Every practicing psychologist is familiar with the methods aimed at studying the purposefulness of actions, which were proposed by E. Seguin. For diagnosis and correction, the author used different variants boards, among which were very simple and more complex.

A simple board is a small sheet of plywood with notches different shapes, which come with tabs that exactly fit these notches. More complex options differ in that the recesses in the board can only be filled with a combination of several tabs. The task can be offered to children even without verbal instructions. The psychologist shows the child the board, in front of his eyes overturns the board so that the tabs fall on the table, and asks him to assemble the board. Completing such a simple task allows the psychologist to determine how the child understood the instructions, how he relates to the task, what methods of work he uses, and how correctly he differentiates the form.

A practicing psychologist widely uses this method to study the characteristics of visual perception, motor skills and hand-eye coordination. The appearance of “Seguin boards” can be considered the beginning of the development of psychocorrectional technologies.

In Russia, one of the first researchers of the problem of diagnosis and correction of children with developmental disorders was P. Ya. Troshin, the author of the first domestic monograph entitled “Comparative Psychology of Normal and Abnormal Children,” published in 1916. The author carefully analyzed the differences in perceptual, mnemonic and mental processes in children with mental retardation and healthy children. “Essentially,” noted Troshin, “there is no difference between normal and abnormal children, both people, both children, they and others develop according to the same laws. The difference lies only in the methods of development” (P. Ya. Troshin, 1916, T. 1, p. 14). This thought got its way further development in the works of L. S. Vygotsky. In his work, P. Ya. Troshin offers original methods of diagnosis and psychocorrectional influences aimed at optimizing mental processes in children with impaired intelligence.

The second stage of development of the theory and practice of psychological correction is closely related to the widespread introduction of experimental psychological methods into the system psychological research. The humanistic orientation of the works of E. Seguin and P. Ya. Troshin was continued in the studies of foreign and domestic psychologists devoted to the study of the mental development of children not only with mental retardation, but also with other defects.

Of particular interest are studies of the characteristics of the mental development of healthy children and children with developmental problems from the perspective of associative psychology, carried out by E. Claperde and M. Montessori. Montessori research is still relevant and practically significant today, despite the many critical assessments of it.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was born in Italy. After graduating from university in 1896, she became the first woman doctor of medicine in Italy. Numerous paths were open to her, but she chose the most ungrateful and difficult one. The first thing that interested her as a professional was the characteristics of the mental development of mentally retarded children. Following the ideas of Edouard Seguin and using his correctional materials, Maria Montessori began to create her own. Soon Montessori created a special school, and then a medical-pedagogical institute for mentally retarded children and orphans, where he developed a variety of didactic material for the mental development of mentally retarded children.

The psychological and pedagogical system of Montessori is based on the important proposition that any life is a manifestation of activity. “The beginning of development lies,” wrote M. Montessori, “within. A child grows not because he eats, not because he breathes, not because he is in favorable conditions temperature: it grows because the potential life inherent in it develops and manifests itself, because it is a fruitful seed from which its life arose and develops in obedience to the biological laws predetermined by heredity” (M. Montessori, 1986, p. 382). A central component of Montessori theory is the concept of sensitive periods of child development. Sensitive periods, according to Montessori, are similar to critical periods, which she views as genetically programmed periods of time when a child is able to master certain skills. For example, there are sensitive periods for mastering language, walking, etc. M. Montessori believes that the child must be provided with conditions for self-learning and self-education, paying great attention sensory education. When analyzing mental retardation, Montessori emphasizes that children with underdevelopment have pronounced disturbances in perception, and the formation of perception is an important condition development of their psyche. These views of M. Montessori served as a source for numerous critics who reproached her for approaching child development from the position of associative psychology, considering psychological correction as a form special exercises aimed at developing sensorimotor abilities.

Education, according to Montessori, is the organization of the child’s environment that best suits his needs. The essence of psychocorrectional methods developed by M. Montessori is to stimulate the child to self-education, self-training and self-development. The didactic materials proposed by M. Montessori are today widely used in psychocorrectional practice not only abroad, but also in our country. Critics of Montessori often reproach her for not introducing such important leading factors in a child’s development as play, drawing, and fairy tales. However, her contribution to correctional pedagogy and psychology is enormous.

She convincingly showed that it is possible to create conditions for a child’s self-development with the help of special gaming materials, and the skillful use of these materials by psychologists and teachers helps to reveal the potential of a developing personality.

The psychocorrectional potential of Maria Montessori's system is extremely great, since her system is based on boundless faith in the creative nature of man.

In pre-revolutionary Russia and in the first years after the October Revolution, Russian psychologists successfully developed their psychocorrectional systems, being under the influence of M. Montessori’s system.

A. N. Grabov (1885-1949) developed a special system correctional classes on the development of memory, thinking, voluntary movements in children with intellectual disabilities.

A special place in system development psychological correction children with developmental problems belongs to V.P. Kashchenko, an outstanding doctor and teacher. Vsevolod Petrovich Kashchenko was born in 1870. His older brother, Pyotr Kashchenko, was a famous psychiatrist. Having finished, like my brother, medical school, V.P. Kashchenko showed great interest in child psychology and psychopathology. He acquired his first practical skills in the field of child psychology in the experimental psychological laboratory of G. I. Rossolimo. In 1907, V.P. Kashchenko collaborated with A.S. Griboedov, who headed the neuropathological clinic at that time. In 1908, Kashchenko went abroad to get acquainted with the work of child psychologists in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Belgium. After returning from abroad, he creates the first sanatorium school for disabled children in Moscow. As a professor of neuropathology and therapeutic pedagogy, V. Kashchenko shows great interest in the problems of childhood handicap, neglect and delinquency. Published in 1912 under the editorship and with the participation of V. Kashchenko, the book “Defective Children at School” was one of the first Russian textbooks on correctional pedagogy and psychology. In his subsequent works, V. Kashchenko emphasized the importance of the social environment in shaping the personality of children with developmental problems. Unfortunately, the name of V. Kashchenko is on long years was forgotten, and only in 1992 his work “Pedagogical Correction: Correcting Character Defects in Children and Adolescents” was published, which quite fully reflected the principles and methods of therapeutic pedagogy, psychotherapeutic and psychological correction, psychological diagnostics. The ideas of the humanist doctor and psychologist V.P. Kashchenko, set out in this book, are still very relevant today and have practical significance.

The third stage in the development of psychological correction is associated with the name of L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934). L. S. Vygotsky conducted numerous studies in the field of defectology and special psychology, and accumulated empirical material about the developmental characteristics of children with various physical and mental abnormalities. It should be noted that even before L. S. Vygotsky it was observed a large number of studies that emphasized the role of social education in the development of an abnormal child. These are the works of E. Seguin, P. Ya. Troshin, A. S. Griboedov, V. P. Kashchenko, A. Adler and others. Their works have an undoubted theoretical and practical significance and today. L. S. Vygotsky summarized the work of his predecessors and created a general concept of abnormal development, outlining the main directions for its correction.

His studies of abnormal childhood are based on the theory of mental development, which Vygotsky developed while studying the features of normal mental development. He showed that the most general laws of development normal child can also be traced in the development of abnormal children. The concept of determining the mental development of an abnormal child was put forward by L. S. Vygotsky in contrast to the biologizing concept that existed at that time, which asserted that the development of an abnormal child proceeds according to special laws. Justifying the position about the commonality of the laws of development of a normal and abnormal child, Vygotsky emphasized that what is common to both options is the social conditioning of mental development. In all his works, the scientist noted that social, in particular pedagogical, influence constitutes an inexhaustible source of the formation of higher mental functions, both in normal conditions and in pathology.

The idea of ​​social conditioning of the development of specifically human mental processes and properties is invariably contained in<~ всех работах автора. Не исключая бесспорность этой идеи, следует от­метить ее практическую значимость, которая заключается в выделе­нии важной роли педагогических и психологических воздействий в формировании психики ребенка, как при нормальном, так и при на­рушенном развитии. Идеи Л. С. Выготского о системном строении дефекта имеют определяющее значение в разработке программ психокоррекционных воздействий. Им были выделены две группы симптомов, наблюдаемые при аномальном развитии ребенка. Это пер­вичные нарушения, которые непосредственно вытекают из биологи­ческого характера болезни, например нарушение слуха, зрения, дви­гательные нарушения, локальные поражения коры головного мозга. И вторичные нарушения, которые возникают опосредованно в про­цессе социального развития аномального ребенка. Вторичный дефект, по мнению автора, является основным объектом психологического изучения и коррекции при аномальном развитии. Механизм возник­новения вторичных дефектов различен. Анализируя причины аномаль­ного развития ребенка, Л. С. Выготский выделял факторы, определя­ющие процесс аномального развития. В своих работах он показал, что удельный вес наследственных предпосылок и средовых влияний раз­личен как для разных сторон психики, так и для разных возрастных этапов развития ребенка. Им были выделены следующие факторы, определяющие аномальное развитие:

Factor 1 - time of occurrence of the primary defect. Common to all types of abnormal development is the early onset of primary pathology. The defect that arose in early childhood, when the entire system of functions had not yet been formed, determines the greatest severity of secondary deviations. For example, with early damage to vision, intelligence and even hearing in children, there is a delay in the development of the motor sphere. This manifests itself in late development of walking and underdevelopment of fine motor skills. Or children with congenital deafness experience underdevelopment or lack of speech. That is, the disruption of the child’s mental development is more severe when the defect occurs early than when it occurs later. However, the complex structure of abnormal development is not limited to deviations in those aspects of mental activity, the development of which is directly dependent on the primarily affected function. Due to the systemic structure of the psyche, secondary deviations, in turn, become the cause of underdevelopment of other mental functions. For example, underdevelopment of speech in deaf and hard of hearing children leads to disruption of interpersonal relationships, which in turn negatively affects the development of their personality.

Factor 2 - the severity of the primary defect. There are two main types of defect. The first of them is private, due to the deficiency of individual functions of gnosis, praxis, and speech. The second is general, associated with a violation of regulatory systems. The depth of the lesion or the severity of the primary defect determines the different conditions of abnormal development. The deeper the primary defect, the more other functions suffer.

The systemic-structural approach to the analysis of defects in children with developmental disorders, proposed by L. S. Vygotsky, allows us to assess the diversity of their development, identify its determining and secondary factors, and on the basis of this build a scientifically based psychocorrection program.

L. S. Vygotsky believed that in the process of correctional work with a child, it is necessary to focus on the zone of proximal development of his personality and activity. In this regard, psychological correction should be aimed at the formation of psychological new formations that constitute the essential characteristics of the child’s age. L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that exercising and training the child’s existing psychological abilities does not make correctional work effective, since training in this case only follows development, improving abilities in a purely quantitative direction, without raising them to a more promising qualitative level.

In parallel with the research of domestic psychologists, other areas of psychological correction were successfully developed at that time: psychodynamic, Adlerian, behavioral, etc.

Representatives of the psychodynamic school associate the causes of disturbances in the behavior and emotional life of children and adolescents with the presence of conflict. Both psychocorrectional and psychotherapeutic methods, in their opinion, should be aimed at eliminating the existing conflict. The main task of psychoanalysis as the main method of psychodynamic direction is to bring to the consciousness of a child or adolescent a conflict situation associated with unconscious drives that are unacceptable to him. Z. Freud’s work “The Story of Little Hans” laid the foundation for the use of psychoanalysis in working with children. Considering that the method of using free associations is ineffective, especially in early preschool age, psychoanalysts began to look for new ways to create psychocorrectional methods. They proposed methods of play therapy and art therapy, which subsequently, going beyond the psychodynamic direction, became basic methods of psychological correction. The general direction of psychological correction within the framework of the psychodynamic approach is. This is helping the child to identify the unconscious causes of emotional experiences and to recognize and re-evaluate them. Psychocorrectional technologies developed by representatives of the psychodynamic direction include various stages, methods and methods of psychocorrectional influences. This is the identification of unconscious motives that underlie emotional disorders in children and adolescents. During the correction process, the psychoanalyst focuses the child’s attention on those internal forces that will help him cope with existing problems. As a result of this, the significance of the problem is reassessed, new systems of emotional attitudes are formed in the child, and, finally, the “center of excitement” is eliminated.

In the practice of child psychoanalysis, methods such as play therapy (directive and non-directive), art therapy, dream interpretation, the method of free associations, etc. are successfully used. It should be emphasized that, despite the obvious shortcomings of psychoanalytic approaches to the problem of a child, the methods proposed by representatives in this area deserve special attention and are widely used in practical work with children with developmental problems.

The research of A. Adler is of particular importance for the psychological correction of children with developmental problems. Focusing on the positive nature of man, Adler emphasized that each person in early childhood forms a unique lifestyle and creates his own destiny. Human behavior is motivated by the desire to achieve goals and social interest. In his works, Adler reflected the qualitative uniqueness of the personality of a child with a physical defect and his high compensatory capabilities. Adler wrote: “Different organs and functions of the human body develop unevenly. A person either begins to take care of his weak organ, strengthening other organs and functions, or persistently tries to develop it. Sometimes these efforts are so serious and prolonged that the compensating organ or the weakest organ itself becomes much stronger than normal. For example, a child with poor eyesight can train himself in the art of looking, a child bedridden due to lung disease can develop different ways of breathing. We often see children who have overcome these difficulties and in the process of overcoming them have developed unusually useful capabilities” (Adler, 1932, p. 15). In his further research, A. Adler makes a very important conclusion that the idea of ​​insufficiency in humans moves from the biological plane to the psychological. “It does not matter,” he wrote, “whether there is in fact any physical insufficiency. It is important how the person himself feels about this, whether he has a feeling that he is missing something. And he will most likely have such a feeling. True, this will be a feeling of insufficiency not in something specific, but in everything...” (Ibid., p. 82) This statement by Adler is key in the theory of compensation for the defect and its correction. However, emphasizing the role of a person’s self-perception of his defect in his further mental development, Adler tries to show that the child’s “feeling of insufficiency” is the determining factor in his subsequent mental development. “To be human is to feel insufficient” (Adler, 1932, p. 82). Adler emphasized that the feeling of insufficiency is a powerful impulse in the further individual development of a person. The theory of defect compensation proposed by Adler is important in psychology. However, one cannot agree with Adler that the defect itself is the driving force of personality development. As L. S. Vygotsky emphasized, the driving force of a child’s development is the individual’s social assessment of his defect, his social position, and attitude towards his defect. The goals of psychological correction, according to Adler, directly follow from the main provisions of his concept. These are: reducing feelings of inferiority; development of social interest; correction of goals and motives with the prospect of changing the meaning of life. The psychocorrectional technologies used by Adler are varied and are quite consistent with the main goals of psychocorrection. Adler pays special attention to establishing trusting contacts between the child and the psychologist, establishing common goals of work, and using encouragement. He developed the “Early Memories” method, dream analysis, where much attention is paid to children’s dreams, the method of value priorities, anti-suggestion (paradoxical intention). In our practice, we used this method with autistic children in the process of group psychocorrection. Its essence lies in the repeated repetition of unwanted actions of children. That is, repeated repetition of the same action devalues ​​this action for the child. For example, many children suffering from autism, in a situation of emotional discomfort, begin to sway, jump, stereotypically shake their arms, etc. In our classes, we asked children to perform these actions, but in a socially acceptable form. For example, children sit opposite each other and, holding hands, sway to the music (game “Boat”). As a result of such exercises, the number of stereotypical actions in children is significantly reduced.

The behavioral direction in psychological correction arose as opposed to the psychodynamic one. The theoretical basis of the behavioral direction in psychological correction is the classical theory of conditioned reflexes by I. P. Pavlov, the theory of operant conditioning by E. Thordnike and B. Skinner. A person, according to representatives of the behavioral school, is a product of his environment and at the same time its creator, and human behavior is formed in the process of his learning. A person's problems arise as a result of poor teaching, and normal behavior can be taught to a child through reinforcement and imitation. The main goal of psychological correction within the behavioral approach is to develop new adaptive behavior in the child or to overcome maladaptive behavior. This is achieved by inhibiting and eliminating old forms of behavior and teaching the child new forms of behavior using self-control and self-regulation techniques. In the process of psychological correction, teaching a child new forms of behavior, the psychologist acts as a teacher, coach, and the child as a student. Within the framework of the behavioral direction, many original psychocorrectional techniques have been developed. For example, the “method of negative influence”, when the child is offered the conscious reproduction of unwanted reactions. Thus, a teenager with a stutter is recommended to deliberately stutter 15-20 times in a row, and a teenager with obsessive movements is recommended to specifically repeat these movements for 10-15 minutes. For hyperactive and impulsive children, within the framework of a behavioral approach to psychological correction, we have developed special programs consisting of several stages. At the first stage, after reading a certain story, the psychologist sets a task for the child. (The stories were selected taking into account the characteristics of the child’s behavior.) For example, the overactive, disobedient Cat Murzik takes away toys from children. Then, at the second stage, the psychologist, together with the child, talks through the course of her decision. At the third stage, the child himself composes a story and formulates problems, reasoning out loud, and at the fourth stage, the child independently solves the problem, speaking it to himself and playing it out. One of the significant disadvantages of psychological correction within the behavioral approach is the focus not on the causes, but on the specifics of the behavior itself. However, the use of this area of ​​psychological correction is very productive when working with children and adolescents.

Psychocorrectional technologies developed within the cognitive-analytical direction are very effective when working with children and adolescents with developmental problems. The theoretical and methodological basis of this direction are the works of Jean Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky. In the process of cognitive psychocorrection, the main attention is paid to the cognitive structures of the child’s psyche and the emphasis is placed on the characteristics of his personality. The main task of psychocorrection within this direction is to create a model of a psychological problem that would be understood by a teenager, as well as teaching him new ways of thinking, changing his perception of himself and the surrounding reality. Within this approach, two directions are distinguished: cognitive-analytical and cognitive-behavioral. The process of psychocorrection takes place in several stages.

The diagnostic stage includes the psychologist’s acquaintance with the teenager’s problems using clinical and biographical analysis and joint formulation of his problems with the teenager. After a thorough analysis, the psychologist compiles a list of the teenager’s problems and presents them to him orally or in writing. We also use the results of a psychological examination using various methods (Cettell, Rosenzweig, etc.) and invite the teenager, together with a psychologist, to consider his personality profile. After a joint analysis, the causes of the teenager’s problems are clarified and discussed jointly with him. After this, the psychologist clarifies and discusses the psychological correction plan with the teenager. This stage may last

from 3 to 7 meetings.

During the correctional stage, the psychologist teaches the teenager to see maladaptive ways of his behavior through introspection and keeping diaries. By discussing the results of his observations with a psychologist, the teenager begins to gradually understand the reasons for his maladaptive reactions and use adaptive forms of behavior in everyday life. During the conversations, the psychologist provides emotional assistance and support to the teenager. The position of the psychologist in the process of cognitive psychocorrection is quite directive, since he acts as a mentor, teacher. However, the psychologist should not directly tell the teenager that his beliefs are irrational or that his behavior is wrong and that he should behave exactly as the psychologist believes. The main task of cognitive psychocorrection is to teach a teenager to independently decide whether to modify or maintain his beliefs, having previously realized their emotional and behavioral consequences.

At the assessment stage, the psychologist together with the teenager discusses new forms of behavior and refines its more complex elements. The basis of the cognitive approach to psychological correction is the assumption that all life problems in a person arise due to erroneous beliefs. In this regard, psychocorrectional technologies within the framework of this approach are aimed at helping teenagers understand their problems and change their behavior based on rational premises.

Of particular importance in the psychological correction of children and adolescents with developmental problems and their parents is the client-centered approach developed by K. Rogers. This approach emphasizes the positive nature of man, namely, his inherent desire for self-realization. According to Rogers, a person’s problems arise when certain feelings are displaced from the field of consciousness and the assessment of one’s own experience is distorted. The basis of mental health, according to K. Rogers, is the harmonious structure of the “Self-concept”, the correspondence of the “ideal Self” to the “real Self”, as well as the individual’s desire for self-knowledge and self-realization. “I am real” is a system of a person’s ideas about himself, which is formed on the basis of experience, communication between a person and other people, and “I am ideal” is an idea of ​​himself as an ideal, about what a person would like to become. as a result of realizing one's potential. The degree of difference between the “real self” and the “ideal self” determines the degree of individual discomfort and personal growth. If the degree of difference is small, then it acts as a driver of personal growth. If a person accepts himself as he really is, then this is a sign of his mental health. Anxiety and disruption of psychological adaptation of the individual, on the one hand, can be the result of a discrepancy between the “real self” and life experience and, on the other hand, between the “real self” and the ideal image that a person has about himself. K. Rogers believed that a person has a tendency towards self-actualization, which contributes to health and personal growth. In the process of psychocorrectional influences, the psychologist is faced with the task of eliminating emotional blocks or obstacles to self-realization and self-actualization. The goal of psychological correction is to develop greater self-esteem in the client and promote his personal growth. It is achieved if the psychologist meets a number of conditions. His main professional responsibility is to create an appropriate psychological climate in which the client could abandon defense mechanisms. This is achieved through the following mechanisms:

Congruence (from the Latin congruens - coinciding) in relationships with the client. This means that the psychologist must correctly understand his own experience. If a psychologist experiences anxiety or discomfort and is not aware of it, then he will not be congruent with his client and the correction will be incomplete. Rogers emphasized that a psychologist, when communicating directly with a client, must be himself, with all his inherent experiences of a given moment, but correctly conscious and integrated.

A positive assessment of the client is the unconditional acceptance and respect of the client, when he feels like an independent, significant person, when he can say what he wants without fear of condemnation.

Empathic perception of the client, in the presence of which the psychologist tries to see the world through the client’s eyes, to feel pain or pleasure as the client himself feels it (Rogers, 1951).

It should be emphasized that the main emphasis of psychocorrectional influences, according to Rogers, should be aimed at the emotional components of the personality, and not at the intellectual ones (judgments, assessments). In addition, special attention should be paid to the client’s initiative and independence. The client strives for self-development, determines the changes he needs, and implements them himself.

Psychocorrectional technologies in Rogers's view should be aimed at establishing congruence with the client, verbalizing and reflecting emotions. This concept has found wide application in working with adolescents with behavioral disorders and with parents of disabled children.

In addition to the areas of psychological correction listed above, there are many others. These are the rational-emotional direction of Ellis, the existential direction, the body-oriented direction of Reich, the bioenergetic approach of Lowen, etc. Each of the directions deserves some attention from psychologists. All theoretical models of psychological correction were created as working models, on the basis of which corresponding psychocorrection technologies were developed. In order to use certain psychocorrectional technologies, it is necessary to deeply understand the mechanisms of human mental activity. A practicing psychologist faces an important task - the practical development of various theoretical areas of psychological correction. The endless variety of personalities and individual lives inherent in different people indicates that there is no single, correct higher method of psychocorrective influence. It should be remembered that in different hands, knowledge of psychocorrectional technologies can have both a healing and destructive effect. Any psychocorrectional technique is just a tool, the skillful use of which depends on the professional, moral and personal potential of a psychologist.

The fourth stage in the development of the theory and practice of psychological correction in our country is associated with the intensive formation of practical psychology, which began in the second half of the 1960s.

During that period, psychological assistance programs for children with cerebral palsy began to be widely developed and put into practice (R. Ya. Abramovich-Lekhtman, 1962; M. V. Ippolitova, 1961; K. A. Semenova, E. M. Mastyukova, M. Y. Smuglin, 1972; E. M. Mastyukova, 1973; I. I. Mamaychuk, 1976; etc.). In the early 80s, original research was carried out by Moscow psychologists on the problems of psychological correction of children suffering from early childhood autism (O. S. Nikolskaya, 1980; V. V. Lebedinsky, 1985; K. S. Lebedinskaya et al., 1989; and others ). Complex correctional programs for neuropsychological correction are being introduced into practice (Yu. V. Mikadze, N. K. Korsakova, 1994; N. M. Pylaeva, T. V. Akhutina, 1997), programs for the formation of spatial concepts in children (N. Ya Semago, M. M. Semago, 2000), correctional psychological and pedagogical programs for educational institutions (I. V. Dubrovina et al., 1990). A significant number of works have appeared on the problems of psychological correction of children and adolescents with emotional disorders (A. I. Zakharov, 1982; A. S. Spivakovskaya, 1988; V. V. Garbuzov, 1990), as well as on issues of family psychological correction (E. G. Eidemiller, V.V. Yustitsky, 1992; etc.).

Currently, the theoretical and methodological aspects of psychological correction of children with developmental problems are being successfully developed (G. V. Burmenskaya, O. A. Kar

Rogers (Rogers S.R.), the author of client-centered psychotherapy, points out the necessary conditions for a successful psychotherapeutic process, which are generally quite independent of the particular characteristics of the patient himself. Among them, he names 3 conditions related to the personality of the psychotherapist.
1. The psychotherapist is congruent in his relationship with the patient.
Congruence, or authenticity, of the psychotherapist means the need for the therapist to correctly symbolize his own experience. Experience refers to both unconscious events and phenomena represented in consciousness (everything that is potentially accessible to consciousness) and relating to a specific moment, and not to some totality of past experience. Openness to experience means that every stimulus, internal or external, is not distorted by the defense mechanism (both in terms of emotional coloring and in terms of perceived meaning). Form, color or sound from the environment, or traces of memory from the past, or visceral sensations, fear, pleasure, disgust, etc. - all this is quite accessible to the individual consciousness. Awareness is a symbolic representation, not necessarily in the form of verbal symbols, of some part of experience.
When self-experience (that is, information about the impact of sensory or visceral events at a given moment) is symbolized correctly and included in the self-concept (image of oneself), then a state of congruence of self and experience arises. In a person open to experience, the self-concept is symbolized in the consciousness in a way that is completely congruent with experience. If the therapist experiences threat or discomfort in the relationship, but is only aware of acceptance and understanding, then he will not be congruent in this relationship and psychotherapy will not be complete. The therapist should not be expected to always be a congruent person. It is enough that each time in a direct relationship with a certain individual, he would be completely and completely himself, with all the experiences of that moment inherent in him, correctly symbolized and integrated.
2. The psychotherapist experiences unconditional positive evaluation towards the patient.
Usually, the definition of a positive assessment includes such concepts as cordiality, affection, respect, sympathy, acceptance, etc. Unconditionally, positively assessing another means assessing him positively, regardless of what feelings certain of his actions cause. Actions can be assessed in different ways, but the acceptance and recognition of an individual does not depend on them. The psychotherapist appreciates the patient’s personality as a whole; he equally feels and shows an unconditional positive assessment of both those experiences that the patient himself is afraid or ashamed of, and those with which he is pleased or satisfied.
3. The psychotherapist perceives the patient empathetically.
To have empathy means to perceive the subjective world, covering the entire complex of sensations, perceptions and memories of another, available to consciousness at a given moment, to perceive correctly, with inherent emotional components and meanings, as if the perceiver himself were this other person. This means - to feel the pain or pleasure of another as he himself feels it, and to relate, as he does, to the reasons that gave rise to them, but at the same time not for a minute forget that it is “as if” (if this is a condition is lost, then this state becomes a state of identification). Knowledge of the patient's subjective world, obtained empathically, leads to an understanding of the basis of his behavior and the process of personality change.
In the absence of these three conditions, the psychotherapeutic process cannot be complete.
Every psychotherapist meets these conditions to some degree, and, as Rogers notes, “some imperfect people are able to provide psychotherapeutic assistance to other also imperfect people”; however, the more pronounced these conditions are, the more successful the psychotherapeutic process will be and the greater the degree of personality integration that occurs.

Mamaichuk I. I.
Psychocorrectional technologies for children with developmental problems. - St. Petersburg: Rech, 2006. - 400 p. ISBN 5-9268-0166-4
This scientific and practical manual outlines various psychocorrectional technologies aimed at compensating and correcting intellectual and emotional-volitional problems in children with various types of mental and physical development disorders. The presented technologies have been tested over many years of experience working with children and adolescents with developmental problems.
The book will be useful not only to psychologists working in the field of clinical and developmental psychology, but also to parents and special education teachers. social workers and other specialists.
BBK 88.8
Table of contents
Introduction........................................................ 3
Chapter 1. History of the development of methods of psychological correction
children with developmental problems................................... 4
Chapter 2. Theoretical and methodological problems of psychological correction of children and adolescents with developmental problems.................................................. 22
Chapter 3. Mental underdevelopment
and basic psychocorrectional technologies................... 53
Chapter 4. Psychocorrectional technologies
with mental retardation in children and adolescents... 82
Chapter 5. Psychological correction for damaged
mental development......................................... 137
Chapter 6. Psychological correction of children
with distorted mental development................................... 159
Chapter 7. Psychocorrectional technologies
for children with cerebral palsy.................................... 209
Chapter 8. Psychocorrectional technologies for disharmony
mental development in children and adolescents................ 274
Chapter 9. Emotional disorders in childhood,
ways of their correction and psychocorrection technologies...... 322
Chapter 10. Psychological correction
parent-child relationships........................ 372
Conclusion................................................... 389
Literature.....*................... 392
INTRODUCTION
One of the important links in the system of psychological assistance to children with developmental problems is psychological correction. However, when implementing psychocorrectional methods in practice, a psychologist often encounters great difficulties. Having mastered numerous methods of psychocorrectional influences, for example, neurolinguistic programming, psychoregulatory training, psychogymnastics, etc., the practicing psychologist often thoughtlessly applies them without connection with theoretical justification, without taking into account the complex structure of the child’s defect, its clinical, psychological and individual typological characteristics. As a result of this approach, you can get the opposite effect and, instead of helping the child, provoke a neuropsychic disorder in him.
Currently, there are many conflicting views on the problem of psychological correction; its theoretical and methodological aspects have not been developed; its main directions and mechanisms of influence in various types of physical and mental development disorders in children and adolescents have not been disclosed.
To successfully provide psychological assistance, a practicing psychologist needs a body of knowledge about the methods and means of conducting psychological correction, that is, mastery of a variety of psychocorrectional technologies.
This scientific and practical manual outlines various psychocorrectional technologies aimed at compensating and correcting intellectual and emotional-volitional problems in children with various types of mental and physical development disorders.
The technologies we present have been tested over many years of experience working with children and adolescents with developmental problems.
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Chapter 1.
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRECTION FOR CHILDREN WITH DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS
The history of the development of methods of psychological correction of children and adolescents with developmental problems is inseparable from the history of the psychology of children and adolescents with developmental problems. Conventionally, four main periods of development can be distinguished.
The first period is descriptive, including medical and pedagogical issues of correction of abnormal development. Teachers, doctors, and psychologists have always shown great interest in the problem of abnormal child development throughout its history. The development of medical and philosophical knowledge made it possible to approach the understanding of the process of mental development of abnormal children from a scientific position.
Most of the works of doctors and teachers of the 19th century were devoted to the psychology of mentally retarded children. These patients were isolated from the general mass of mentally ill people into a separate group. Many psychiatrists and psychologists of that period tried to develop a classification of the physiological and social causes of intellectual defects in children. A special role in the study of children with intellectual disabilities belongs to the French physician and teacher of the mid-19th century, Edouard Seguin (1812-1880). He was the first to try to identify the most significant defects in mental retardation, emphasized the decisive role of violations of the child’s volitional activity in the formation of the defect, and attached particular importance to the development of sensory organs in people with limited intellectual capabilities. Unfortunately, in Russian defectology and psychology, insufficient attention is paid to the research of this great humanist scientist. Seguin organized a boarding school for mentally retarded children, where he sought to implement his ideas in the field of therapeutic pedagogy. His works remain relevant today. In his monograph “Education, hygiene and moral treatment
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mentally abnormal children" E. Seguin described the picture of an ideal institution in which mentally retarded children should be raised, he noted the important role of social education of a deeply retarded child, emphasized that the path of development of mentally retarded children lies through cooperation, through social assistance another person (Séguin, 1903). The author suggested A complex approach to raising children with intellectual disabilities. However, E. Seguin went down in history not only as a specialist who studied the characteristics of mental development in intellectual disabilities. E. Seguin is the author of original methods for diagnosing and correcting the perceptual and mental development of children with intellectual disabilities. These methods are of undoubted practical importance today. Every practicing psychologist is familiar with the methods aimed at studying purposeful actions, which were proposed by E. Seguin. To diagnose and correct sensory-perceptual processes, the author used various geometric figures, some of which were very simple or more complex. The figures were located in special recesses. More complex versions differed in that the recesses in the boards were filled with a combination of several shapes. For example, a square could only be made from two or more triangles. The psychologist shows the child the board, overturns it before his eyes and offers to place the figures on the board. Completing such a simple task allows the psychologist to monitor how the child understood the instructions, his attitude towards completing the task, what methods of work the child uses, and how he correctly differentiates the form. The advantage of this method is that tasks can be offered to the child without the use of preliminary verbal instructions, which is important when examining children with hearing and speech problems. Psychologists widely use Seguin boards (this is the name of this technique) to study the characteristics of visual perception, motor skills, and hand-eye coordination. The appearance of Seguin’s methodology in psychological and pedagogical practice can be considered the beginning of the development of psychocorrectional technologies.
In Russia, one of the first researchers of the problem of diagnosis and correction of children with developmental disorders was P. Ya. Tro5
Shin, author of the first Russian monograph entitled “Comparative Psychology of Normal and Abnormal Children,” published in 1916. The author carefully analyzed the differences in perceptual, mnemonic and mental processes in children with mental retardation and healthy children. “Essentially,” notes Troshin, “there is no difference between normal and abnormal children, both people, both children, both develop according to the same laws. The difference lies only in the methods of development” (Troshin P. Ya., 1916. T. 1, p. 14). This idea was further developed in the works of L. S. Vygotsky. In his two-volume work, P. Ya. Troshin offers original diagnostic methods and psychocorrectional interventions aimed at optimizing mental processes in children with impaired intelligence.
The second stage in the development of the theory and practice of psychological correction is closely related to the widespread introduction of experimental psychological methods into the system of psychological research. The humanistic orientation of the works of E. Seguin and P. Ya. Troshin was continued in the studies of foreign and domestic psychologists to study the mental development of children not only with mental retardation, but also with other defects.
Of great interest are studies of the characteristics of the mental development of healthy children and children with developmental problems from the perspective of associative psychology (E. Claperde, M. Montessori). M. Montessori's research remains relevant and practically significant today, despite the numerous critical assessments of them.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was born in Italy, graduated from university in 1896 and became Italy's first female doctor of medicine. Numerous paths were open to her, but she chose the most ungrateful and difficult one. Her main interest as a professional was the features of the mental development of mentally retarded children. Following the ideas of Edouard Seguin, Maria Montessori begins to create her own correctional materials aimed at developing the child’s cognitive processes. Soon M. Montessori created a special school, and then a medical-pedagogical institute for the mentally retarded
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children and orphans. She develops a variety of didactic material for the mental development of mentally retarded children. At the heart of M. Montessori’s psychological and pedagogical system is the important position that any life is a manifestation of activity. “The beginning of development lies,” writes M. Montessori, “within. A child grows not because he eats, not because he breathes, not because he is in favorable temperature conditions: he grows because the potential life inherent in him develops and manifests itself, because he is a fruitful seed from which his life began and develops, obeying the biological laws predetermined by heredity” (Montessori, 1986, p. 382). A central component of Montessori theory is the concept of sensitive periods of child development. Sensitive periods, according to Montessori, are similar to critical periods, which she views as genetically programmed periods of time when a child is able to master certain skills. For example, there are sensitive periods for mastering language, walking, etc. M. Montessori believes that the child must be provided with conditions for self-learning and self-education. Paying great attention to the sensory education of children with mental retardation, M. Montessori emphasizes that they have pronounced disturbances of perception, and the formation of perception is important in the development of their psyche. These views of M. Montessori served as a source for numerous critics who reproached her for approaching child development from the position of associative psychology, considering psychological correction as a form of special exercises aimed at developing sensorimotor abilities. However, these critical remarks do not reduce the overall value of M. Montessori’s views on the process of raising a child. Montessori education is the organization of the child's environment that best suits his needs. The essence of psychocorrectional methods developed by M. Montessori is to stimulate the child to self-education, self-training and self-development. Didactic materials proposed by M. Montessori are widely used in psychocorrectional practice not only
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abroad, but also in our country. Critics of Montessori often reproach her for underestimating such important leading factors in a child’s development as play, drawing, and fairy tales. However, her contribution to correctional pedagogy and psychology is enormous. She convincingly showed that it is possible to create conditions for a child’s self-development with the help of special gaming materials, and the skillful use of these materials by psychologists and teachers helps to reveal the potential of a developing personality. The psychocorrectional potential of Maria Montessori's system is extremely great, since her system is based on boundless faith in the creative nature of man. In pre-revolutionary Russia and in the first years after the October Revolution, Russian psychologists successfully developed their psychocorrectional systems, being under the influence of M. Montessori’s system. A. N. Grabov (1885-1949) developed a special system of correctional classes for the development of memory, thinking, and voluntary movements in children with intellectual disabilities. A special place in the development of a system of psychological correction for children with developmental problems belongs to V. P. Kashchenko, to an outstanding doctor and teacher. Vsevolod Petrovich Kashchenko was born in 1870. His older brother Pyotr Kashchenko was a famous psychiatrist. After graduating from medical school, V.P. Kashchenko showed great interest in child psychology and psychopathology. He acquired his first practical skills in the field of child psychology in the experimental psychological laboratory of Rossolimo. In 1907, V.P. Kashchenko collaborated with A.S. Griboedov, who headed the neuropathological clinic at that time. In 1908, Kashchenko went abroad to get acquainted with the work of child psychologists in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Belgium. After returning from abroad, he created the first sanatorium school in Moscow for handicapped children. As a professor of neuropathology and therapeutic pedagogy, V. Kashchenko shows great interest in the problems of childhood handicap, neglect and delinquency. Published in 1912 under the editorship and with the participation of V. Kashchenko, the book “Defective Children at School” was one of the first Russian textbooks on correctional pedagogy and psychology. In his subsequent works V. Ka8
Shchenko emphasized the importance of the social environment in shaping the personality of children with developmental problems. Unfortunately, the name of V. Kashchenko was forgotten for many years, and only in 1992 his book “Pedagogical Correction: Correcting Character Defects in Children and Adolescents” was published, which quite fully reflects the principles and methods of therapeutic pedagogy, psychotherapeutic and psychological correction , psychological diagnostics. The ideas of the humanist doctor and psychologist V.P. Kashchenko, set out in this book, are still very relevant and practically significant today.
The third stage in the development of methods of psychological correction is associated with the name of L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934). L. S. Vygotsky conducted numerous studies in the field of defectology and special psychology, and accumulated empirical material about the developmental characteristics of children with various physical and mental abnormalities. It should be noted that even before L. S. Vygotsky, there was a large number of studies that emphasized the role of social education in the development of an abnormal child. These are the works of E. Seguin, P. Ya. Troshin, A. S. Griboyedov, V. P. Kashchenko, A. Adler and others, which have undoubted theoretical and practical significance today. L. S. Vygotsky analyzed the works of his predecessors and created a unified concept of abnormal development, outlining the main directions for its correction. The basis for research into abnormal childhood is the theory of mental development, which Vygotsky developed while studying the features of normal mental development. He showed that the most general laws of development of a normal child can also be traced in the development of abnormal children. “Recognition of the commonality of the laws of development in the normal and pathological sphere is the cornerstone of any comparative study of the child. But these general patterns find a unique concrete expression in one and in another case. Where we are dealing with normal development, these patterns are realized under one set of conditions. Where atypical, deviating from the norm, development unfolds before us, the same patterns, being realized in a completely different set of conditions, acquire a qualitatively original, specificity9
ical expression, which is not a dead cast of typical child development” (Vygotsky, 1983-1984. Vol. 5, p. 196).
The concept of determining the mental development of an abnormal child was put forward by L. S. Vygotsky in contrast to the biologizing concept that existed at that time, which asserted that the development of an abnormal child proceeds according to special laws. Justifying the position about the commonality of the laws of development of a normal and abnormal child, Vygotsky emphasized that what is common to both options is the social conditioning of mental development. In all his works, the scientist noted that social, in particular pedagogical, influence constitutes an inexhaustible source of the formation of higher mental functions, both in normal conditions and in pathology.
The idea of ​​social conditioning of the development of specifically human mental processes and properties is invariably contained in all the author’s works and, although it is not indisputable, it should be noted its practical significance, which lies in highlighting the important role of pedagogical and psychological influences in the development of the child’s psyche both in normal and impaired development.
L. S. Vygotsky’s ideas about the systemic structure of the defect allowed him to distinguish two groups of symptoms in abnormal development. These are primary disorders that directly arise from the biological nature of the disease, for example, hearing impairment, vision, motor disorders, local lesions of the cerebral cortex, and secondary disorders that arise indirectly in the process of social development of an abnormal child. “All modern psychological research into abnormal children is imbued with the basic idea that the picture of mental retardation and other forms of abnormal development is a highly complex structure. It is a mistake to think that from the defect, as from the main core, all the symptoms that characterize the picture as a whole can be directly and directly isolated. In fact, it turns out that the features in which this picture manifests itself have a very complex structure. They reveal extremely intricate structural and functional relationships and dependencies, in particular
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show that along with the primary characteristics of such a child arising from his defect, there are secondary, tertiary, etc. complications arising not from the defect itself, but from its primary symptoms. Additional syndromes of an abnormal child arise, as if a complex superstructure over the main picture of development...” (Vygotsky, 1983-1984. Vol. 5, p. 205). The secondary defect, according to the author, is the main object of psychological study and correction in case of abnormal development. The mechanism of occurrence of secondary defects in children depends on various factors. The author identified the following factors that determine abnormal development. Factor 1 - time of occurrence of the primary defect. Common to all types of abnormal development is the early onset of primary pathology. The defect that arose in early childhood, when the entire system of functions was not formed, causes the greatest severity of secondary deviations. For example, with early damage to vision, intelligence and even hearing in children, there is a delay in the development of the motor sphere. This manifests itself in late development of walking and underdevelopment of fine motor skills. Children with congenital deafness experience underdevelopment or absence of speech. That is, the earlier the defect occurs, the more severe disturbances in the course of mental development it leads to. However, the complex structure of abnormal development is not limited to deviations in those aspects of mental activity, the development of which is directly dependent on the primarily affected function. Due to the systemic structure of the psyche, secondary deviations, in turn, become the cause of underdevelopment of other mental functions. For example, underdevelopment of speech in deaf and hard of hearing children leads to disruption of interpersonal relationships, which, in turn, negatively affects the development of their personality.
Factor 2 - the severity of the primary defect. There are two main types of defect. The first of them is private, due to the deficiency of individual functions of gnosis, praxis, and speech. The second is general, associated with a violation of regulatory systems. The depth of the lesion or the severity of the primary defect determines the different conditions of the abnormal
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development. The deeper the primary defect, the more other functions suffer.
The systemic-structural approach to the analysis of defects in children with developmental disorders, proposed by L. S. Vygotsky, allows us to assess the diversity of their development, identify its determining and secondary factors, and on the basis of this build a scientifically based psychocorrection program.
The genesis of Vygotsky’s views on the process of abnormal development reflects his general concept of the development of higher mental functions. Dividing mental functions into higher and lower, Vygotsky emphasized that “the study of higher mental functions in their development convinces us that these functions have a social origin both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis<...>every function appears on the scene twice, on two levels, first social, then mental, first between people as an interpsychic category, then within the child as an intrapsychic category” (Vygotsky, 1983-1984. Vol. 5, pp. 196-198). Analyzing abnormal development, Vygotsky noted that underdevelopment of higher mental functions in abnormal children arises as an additional, secondary phenomenon, built on the basis of primary characteristics. And underdevelopment of lower mental functions is a direct consequence of the defect. That is, the author considers underdevelopment of higher mental functions as a secondary superstructure over the defect.
The analysis of the mechanism of formation of individual consciousness during normal and pathological development, proposed in L. S. Vygotsky’s concept of higher mental functions, undoubtedly has enormous theoretical significance. However, specifying the general provisions about the determining role of social factors in abnormal development. Of course, the role of social factors is of undoubted importance in the process of socialization of children with impaired analyzers: vision, hearing, movements. However, when intellectual activity is impaired, a differentiated approach is required with mandatory consideration of the structure, dynamics of the defect, and the relationship between affective and intellectual processes.
In his further research, L. S. Vygotsky analyzed various variants of the defect, described various correlations12
bearing intelligence and defect, lower and higher mental functions. He also revealed the patterns of their development and the possibility of preventing secondary disorders as a consequence of primary ones associated with organ disease.
The theoretical concept of abnormal development developed by L. S. Vygotsky remains relevant today and has enormous practical significance.
In parallel with the research of domestic psychologists during that period, various directions of psychological correction were successfully developed: psychodynamic, Adlerian, behavioral, etc.
Representatives of the psychodynamic school associate the causes of disturbances in the behavior and emotional life of children and adolescents with the presence of conflict. Based on this, psycho-corrective and psychotherapeutic methods should be aimed at eliminating the existing conflict. The main task of psychoanalysis as the main method of psychodynamic direction is to bring to the consciousness of a child or adolescent a conflict situation associated with unconscious drives that are unacceptable to him. Z. Freud’s work “The Story of Little Hans” laid the foundation for the use of psychoanalysis in working with children. In addition to the method of free association, which is not always effective in psychotherapeutic work with children, especially early preschool age, psychoanalysts developed new psychocorrectional methods of play therapy and art therapy, which subsequently, going beyond the psychodynamic direction, became basic methods of psychological correction. The general focus of psychological correction within the framework of the psychodynamic approach is to help the child identify the unconscious causes of emotional experiences, understand and re-evaluate them. Psychocorrectional technologies developed by representatives of the psychodynamic direction include various stages, methods and methods of psychocorrectional influences. Starting with the identification of unconscious motives underlying emotional disorders in children and adolescents, the psychoanalyst, in the process of correction, focuses the child’s attention on those internal forces that
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will help him cope with existing problems. As a result of this, the significance of the problem is reassessed, new systems of emotional attitudes are formed in the child, and finally the “center of excitement” is eliminated.
Among the methods in the modern practice of child psychoanalysis, such as play therapy (directive and non-directive), art therapy, as well as dream interpretation and the method of free association for older children are successfully used. It should be emphasized that, despite the obvious shortcomings of psychoanalytic approaches to the problem of the child, the methods proposed by representatives of this direction deserve special attention and are widely used in practical work with children with developmental problems.
The research of A. Adler is of particular importance for the psychological correction of children with developmental problems. Focusing on the positive nature of man, Adler emphasized that each person in early childhood forms a unique lifestyle and creates his own destiny. Human behavior is motivated by the desire to achieve goals and social interest. In his works, Adler reflected the qualitative uniqueness of the personality of a child with a physical defect and his high compensatory capabilities. Adler wrote: “Different organs and functions of the human body develop unevenly. A person either begins to take care of his weak organ, strengthening other organs and functions, or persistently tries to develop it. Sometimes these efforts are so serious and prolonged that the compensating organ or the weakest organ itself becomes much stronger than normal. For example, a child with poor eyesight can train himself in the art of looking, a child bedridden due to lung disease can develop different ways of breathing. We often see children who have overcome these difficulties and in the process of overcoming them have developed unusually useful capabilities" (Ader, 1932, p. 15). In his further research, A. Adler makes a very important conclusion that the idea of ​​insufficiency in humans moves from the biological plane to the psychological. “It does not matter,” he wrote, “whether there is in fact any physical defect14
ness. It is important how the person himself feels about this, whether he has a feeling that he is missing something. And he will most likely have such a feeling. True, this will be a feeling of insufficiency not in something specific, but in everything...” (Ibid., p. 82). This statement by Adler is key in the theory of defect compensation and correction. However, emphasizing the role of a person’s self-perception of his defect in his further mental development, Adler tries to show that the “feeling of insufficiency” in a child is the determining factor in his further mental development. “To be human is to feel insufficient” (Ader, 1932, p. 82). Adler noted that the feeling of insufficiency is a powerful impulse in the further individual development of a person. The theory of defect compensation proposed by Adler is important in psychology. However, we cannot agree with Adler that it is not the defect itself that is the driving force of personality development. As L. S. Vygotsky emphasized, the driving force of a child’s development is the individual’s social assessment of his defect, his social position, and attitude towards his defect. The goals of psychological correction according to Adler directly follow from the main provisions of his concept. They are: reducing feelings of inferiority; development of social interest; correction of goals and motives with the prospect of changing the meaning of life. The psychocorrectional technologies used by Adler are varied and are quite consistent with the main goals of psychocorrection. Adler pays special attention to establishing trusting contacts between the child and the psychologist, establishing common goals of work, and using encouragement. He developed the “Early Memories” method, dream analysis, where much attention is paid to children’s dreams, the method of value priorities, anti-suggestion (paradoxical intention). In our practice, we used this method with autistic children in the process of group psychocorrection. Its essence lies in the repeated repetition of unwanted actions of children. Repeated repetition of the same action devalues ​​this action for the child. For example, many children suffering from autism, in a situation of emotional discomfort, begin to sway, jump, and stereotypically shake
15
hands, etc. In our classes, we asked children to perform these actions, but in a socially acceptable form. For example, children sat opposite each other and, holding hands, swayed to the music (the “boat” game). As a result of such exercises, the number of stereotypical actions in children decreased significantly. The behavioral direction in psychological correction arose as opposed to the psychodynamic one. Its theoretical basis is the classical theory of conditioned reflexes by I. P. Pavlov, the theory of operant conditioning by E. Thordnike and B. Skinner. According to representatives of the behavioral school, a person is a product of his environment and at the same time its creator, and his behavior is formed in the learning process. A person's problems arise as a result of poor teaching, and normal behavior can be taught to a child through reinforcement and imitation. The main goal of psychological correction within the behavioral approach is to develop new adaptive behavior in the child or to overcome maladaptive behavior. This is achieved through inhibition and elimination of old forms of behavior and teaching the child new forms of behavior using self-control and self-regulation techniques. In the process of psychological correction, teaching a child new forms of behavior, the psychologist acts as a teacher, coach, and the child as a student. Within the framework of the behavioral direction, many original psychocorrective technologies have been developed. For example, the “method of negative influence”, when the child is offered the conscious reproduction of unwanted reactions. Thus, a teenager with a stutter is recommended to deliberately stutter 15-20 times in a row, and a teenager with obsessive movements is recommended to specifically repeat these movements for 10-15 minutes. One of the significant disadvantages of psychological correction within the behavioral approach is the focus not on the causes, but on the specifics of the behavior itself. However, the use of this area of ​​psychological correction is very productive when working with children and adolescents.
Psychocorrection technologies developed by representatives of the cognitive-analytical direction are effective when working with children and adolescents with developmental problems.
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in psychology. The theoretical and methodological basis of this direction are the works of Jean Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky. In the process of cognitive psychocorrection, the main attention is paid to the cognitive structures of the child’s psyche, and the emphasis is on the characteristics of his personality. The main task of cognitive psychocorrection is to create a model of a psychological problem that would be understood by a teenager, as well as teaching him new ways of thinking, changing his perception of himself and the surrounding reality. Within this approach, two directions are distinguished: cognitive-analytical and cognitive-behavioral. The process of psychocorrection takes place in several stages.
The diagnostic stage includes the psychologist’s acquaintance with the teenager’s problems using clinical and biographical analysis and joint formulation of his problems with the teenager. After a thorough analysis, the psychologist compiles a list of the teenager’s problems and presents them to him orally or in writing. We also use the results of a psychological examination using various methods (Cettell, Rosenzweig, etc.) and invite the teenager, together with a psychologist, to consider his personality profile. After a joint analysis, the causes of the teenager’s problems are clarified. After this, the psychologist clarifies and discusses the psychological correction plan with the teenager. This stage can last from 3 to 7 meetings with the teenager.
During the correctional stage, the psychologist teaches the teenager to recognize maladaptive ways of his behavior through introspection and keeping diaries. By discussing the results of his observations with a psychologist, the teenager begins to gradually understand the reasons for his maladaptive reactions and replace them with more effective forms of behavior in everyday life. During the conversations, the psychologist provides emotional assistance and support to the teenager. The position of the psychologist in the process of cognitive psychocorrection is quite directive, since he acts as a mentor, teacher. However, a psychologist should not directly tell a teenager that his beliefs are irrational or his behavior is wrong, and that he should behave exactly as the psychologist believes. Thus, the goal of cognitive psychocorrection is to teach a teenager the ability to independently decide, modify 17
to adopt or maintain one's beliefs after being aware of their emotional and behavioral consequences.
At the assessment stage, the psychologist and the teenager discuss new forms of behavior and work through more complex ones.
elements.
The basis of the cognitive approach to psychological correction is the assumption that all life problems in a person arise due to erroneous beliefs. In this regard, psychocorrectional technologies within the framework of this approach are aimed at helping teenagers understand their problems and change their behavior based on rational premises.
Of particular importance in the psychological correction of children and adolescents with developmental problems and their parents is the client-centered approach developed by K. Rogers. This approach emphasizes the positive nature of man, namely, his inherent desire for self-realization. According to Rogers, a person’s problems arise when certain feelings are displaced from the field of consciousness and the assessment of one’s own experience is distorted. The basis of mental health, according to K. Rogers, is the harmonious structure of the self-concept, the correspondence of the ideal self to the real self, as well as the individual’s desire for self-knowledge and self-realization. “I-real” is a system of a person’s ideas about himself, which is formed on the basis of experience, a person’s communication with other people, and “I-ideal” is an idea of ​​himself as an ideal, about what a person would like to become in life. as a result of realizing one's potential. The degree of difference between the “real self” and the “ideal self” determines the degree of individual discomfort and personal growth. If the degree of difference is not great, then it acts as a driver of personal growth. If a person accepts himself as he really is, then this is a sign of his mental health. Anxiety and disruption of a person’s psychological adaptation, on the one hand, can be the result of a discrepancy between the real self and life experience and, on the other hand, between the real self and the ideal image that a person has about himself. K. Rogers believed that a person has a tendency towards self-actualization, which contributes to health and personal growth18
that. In the process of psychocorrectional influences, the psychologist is faced with the task of eliminating emotional blocks or obstacles to self-realization and self-actualization. The goal of psychological correction is to develop greater self-esteem in the client, which contributes to his personal growth.
The main professional responsibility of a psychologist is to create an appropriate psychological climate in which the client could abandon defense mechanisms. This is achieved subject to the following conditions:
- Congruence (from the Latin congruens - coinciding) in relationships with the client. This means that the psychologist must correctly understand his own experience. If a psychologist experiences anxiety or discomfort and does not realize it, then he will not be congruent with his client and the correction will not be complete. Rogers emphasized that when communicating directly with a client, the psychologist must be himself, with all his inherent experiences of the moment, but correctly realized and integrated.
- A positive assessment of the client is the unconditional acceptance and respect of the client, when he feels like an independent, significant person, he can say what he wants without fear of condemnation.
- Empathic perception of the client, when the psychologist tries to see the world through the client’s eyes, to feel pain or pleasure the way the client feels it.
It should be emphasized that the main emphasis of psychocorrectional influences according to Rogers should be aimed at the emotional components of the personality, and not at the intellectual ones (judgments, assessments). In addition, special attention should be paid to the client’s initiative and independence. The client strives for self-development, determines the changes he needs, and implements them himself.
Psychocorrectional technologies according to Rogers should be aimed at establishing congruence with the client, verbalizing and reflecting emotions. K. Rogers' concept has found wide application in working with adolescents with behavioral disorders and with parents of disabled children (see below).
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In addition to the areas of psychological correction already listed, there are many others. These are the rational-emotional direction of Ellis, the existential direction, the body-oriented direction of Reich, the bioenergetic approach of Lowen, etc. Each of them deserves some attention from psychologists. All theoretical models of psychological correction were created as working models, on the basis of which corresponding psychocorrection technologies were developed. To use them successfully, it is necessary to deeply understand the mechanisms of human mental activity. A practicing psychologist faces an important task - the practical development of various theoretical areas of psychological correction. The endless variety of personalities and individual lifestyles of each person indicates that there is no single correct, universal method of psycho-corrective influence. It should be remembered that the undifferentiated use of psychocorrectional technologies can have a destructive effect on the individual. Any method is just a tool, the skillful use of which depends on the professional knowledge of the psychologist, as well as on his moral and personal potential.
The fourth stage in the development of the theory and practice of psychological correction in our country is associated with the intensive formation of practical psychology, which began in the second half of the 60s. During that period, psychological assistance programs for children with cerebral palsy began to be widely developed and put into practice. (Abramovich-Lekhtman, 1962; Ippolitova, 1967; Semenova, Mastyukova, Smuglin, 1972; Mastyukova, 1973; Simonova, 1981; Mamaichuk, 1976, etc.). In the early 80s, original research was carried out by Moscow psychologists on the problems of psychological correction of children suffering from early childhood autism (Nikolskaya, 1980; Lebedinsky, 1985; Lebedinskaya et al., 1988 and others). Complex correctional programs for neuropsychological correction are being introduced into practice (Yu. V. Mikadze, N. K. Korsakova, 1994; N. M. Pylaeva, T. V. Akhutina, 1997), programs for the formation of spatial concepts in children (N. I. Semago,
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M. M. Semago, 2000), correctional psychological and pedagogical programs for educational institutions. A significant number of works have appeared on the problems of psychological correction of children and adolescents with emotional disorders (A. I. Zakharov, 1982; A. S. Spivakovskaya, 1988; V. V. Garbuzov, 1990), as well as issues of family psychological correction (E. G. Eidemiller, V.V. Yustitsky, 1992, etc.).
Currently, the theoretical and methodological aspects of psychological correction of children with developmental problems are being successfully developed (Burmenskaya, Karabanova, Lidere, 1990; Shevchenko, 1995; Mamaichuk, 1997; Osipova, 2000, etc.).

Chapter 2.
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRECTION OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRECTION
Translated from Latin, the word “correction” (Latin - cog-rectio) means amendment, partial correction or change. The term “correction of mental development” was first used in defectology as one of the options for psychological and pedagogical assistance to children with developmental problems. It meant a set of pedagogical influences aimed at correcting and compensating for shortcomings and deviations in the mental and physical development of the child.
With the development of practical psychology, the concept of “correction” has become increasingly used in developmental psychology and psychological assistance not only for children with developmental problems, but also with normal mental development. The expansion of the scope of use of psychological correction in working with healthy children is due to the following reasons:
1. Active introduction of new educational programs into the education system, the successful assimilation of which requires the maximum development of the child’s creative and intellectual potential.
2. Humanization of the educational process, which is impossible without a differentiated approach to teaching a child and requires taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of each student and, in accordance with this, various methods of psychological and pedagogical correction.
In this regard, fundamental changes have occurred in the nature of the tasks and directions of corrective influences - from correcting defects in impaired development to creating optimal opportunities and conditions for the mental development of a healthy child.
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Currently, psychological correction is widely used in the system of psychological assistance to children and adolescents. Despite the wide range of applications of the concept of psychological correction, there are disagreements regarding its use. For example, some authors consider psychological correction as a way to prevent neuropsychic disorders in children (A. S. Spivakovskaya, 1988). Others understand it as a method of psychological influence aimed at creating optimal opportunities and conditions for the development of a child’s personal and intellectual potential (G.V. Burmenskaya, O.A. Karabanova, A.G. Lidere, 1990), or as a set of techniques used by a psychologist to correct the psyche or behavior of a mentally healthy person (R. S. Nemov, 1993).
In pathopsychology and special psychology, correction is considered as one of the methods of psychological influence aimed at correcting deviations in the mental development of a child.
Often the concept of psychological correction is replaced by the concept of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy (from the Greek psyche - soul and therapeia - care) is a system of specially organized methods of therapeutic intervention. Psychocorrection, as is clear from this term, is aimed at correction, that is, at correcting certain disorders. However, differences in the definitions of the concepts of psychocorrection and psychotherapy arose not in connection with the specifics of their impact on the individual, but with the opinion rooted in our country that psychotherapy can only be carried out by specialists with medical education, and psychocorrection - by psychologists. It should be emphasized that the term psychotherapy is international and in many countries of the world is clearly used in relation to the methods of work carried out by a psychologist.
We can consider both psychocorrection and psychotherapy as a method of psychological influence. A number of authors see the difference between psychotherapy and psychocorrection in the areas of their application. If psychotherapy is mainly used in the clinic of neuroses and psychosomatic diseases, then psychocorrection is widely
23
used in a psychiatric clinic (V.P. Kritskaya, T.K. Meleshko, Yu.F. Polyakov, 1991). Other authors emphasize the wide scope of application of psychocorrection both in solving therapeutic psychotherapeutic problems themselves, and for the purpose of hygiene and prevention (R. A. Zashchepitsky, 1983; G. L. Isurina, 1983). “The more important psychological and socio-psychological factors are in the development of one or another type of disorder,” writes G.L. Isurina, “the greater the importance of psychological correction methods” (p. 250).
A. A. Osipova identifies specific features of psychological correction: focus on clinically healthy people; focus on healthy aspects of the personality, focus on medium-term assistance, focus on changing behavior and personality development. We cannot agree with the author that the object of psychological correction, unlike psychotherapy, can only be clinically healthy individuals. In our opinion, both healthy and sick people can participate in the psychocorrection process. The main goal of psychocorrection for healthy children (i.e., those not burdened by biological factors with developmental deviations) is to promote full mental and personal development.
Correction of abnormal development is carried out by medical psychologists, patho- and neuropsychologists. Each form of abnormal development has its own specific goals, objectives and methods of correction. For example, in case of mental illnesses in children (early childhood autism syndrome, schizophrenia, etc.), psychological correction is aimed at emotional stimulation of the child, the development of his communicative functions, and the formation of social activation. In case of somatic diseases in children, the main task is to correct self-esteem, develop more adequate and flexible reactions to the disease, improve personal control, and restore the child’s communication skills. In children with mental retardation, depending on the form of the delay, correctional work is aimed at stimulating their cognitive activity, developing the orienting basis of activity, control, and optimizing mnestic and intellectual functions.
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In the process of psychological correction of abnormal development, it is necessary to take into account the complex structure of the child’s developmental characteristics, the nature of the combination in the picture of his condition of such factors as the social situation of development, the severity of personality changes associated with the disease.
Taking into account the above, psychological correction can be considered in the broad and narrow sense of this concept. In a broad sense, we understand psychological correction as a complex of clinical, psychological and pedagogical influences aimed at identifying and eliminating children’s deficiencies in the development of mental functions and personal properties. In a narrow sense, psychological correction is considered as a method of psychological influence to optimize the development of mental processes and functions and harmonize the development of personal properties.
Depending on the nature of the diagnosis and the direction of correction, D. B. Elkonin proposed to distinguish between two forms of correction: symptomatic, aimed at symptoms of developmental deviations, and correction, eliminating the source and causes of developmental deviations. Symptomatic correction, of course, has significant drawbacks, since the same symptoms in children can be caused by different reasons and, as a result, have different effects on the dynamics of the child’s mental development. For example, for a child suffering from enuresis (urinary incontinence), special relaxation exercises aimed at eliminating this defect may be useful. However, especially in extreme situations, these phenomena can be repeated in a child, despite the success of psychocorrection in general. This method of psychological correction is not sufficient if we do not know the true cause of enuresis. It can be caused by both psychogenic (for example, fear of a child) and biological factors (anomaly of the pelvic organs).
Thus, psychological correction should be more deeply concentrated not on the external manifestations of developmental deviations, but on the actual sources that give rise to these deviations.
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In the practice of psychocorrectional work with children with developmental problems, several models of the causes of developmental disorders are identified.
The biological model explains the cause of developmental disorders by a decrease in the rate of maturation of brain structures.
Medical mo

ROGERS TRIAD

Rogers (Rogers S.R.), the author of client-centered psychotherapy, points out the necessary conditions for a successful psychotherapeutic process, which are generally quite independent of the particular characteristics of the patient himself. Among them, he names 3 conditions related to the personality of the psychotherapist.
1. The psychotherapist is congruent in his relationship with the patient.
Congruence, or authenticity, of the psychotherapist means the need for the therapist to correctly symbolize his own experience. Experience refers to both unconscious events and phenomena represented in consciousness (everything that is potentially accessible to consciousness) and relating to a specific moment, and not to some totality of past experience. Openness to experience means that every stimulus, internal or external, is not distorted by the defense mechanism (both in terms of emotional coloring and in terms of perceived meaning). Form, color or sound from the environment, or traces of memory from the past, or visceral sensations, fear, pleasure, disgust, etc. - all this is quite accessible to the individual consciousness. Awareness is a symbolic representation, not necessarily in the form of verbal symbols, of some part of experience.
When self-experience (that is, information about the impact of sensory or visceral events at a given moment) is symbolized correctly and included in the self-concept (image of oneself), then a state of congruence of self and experience arises. In a person open to experience, the self-concept is symbolized in the consciousness in a way that is completely congruent with experience. If the therapist experiences threat or discomfort in the relationship, but is only aware of acceptance and understanding, then he will not be congruent in this relationship and psychotherapy will not be complete. The therapist should not be expected to always be a congruent person. It is enough that each time in a direct relationship with a certain individual, he would be completely and completely himself, with all the experiences of that moment inherent in him, correctly symbolized and integrated.
2. The psychotherapist experiences unconditional positive evaluation towards the patient.
Typically, the definition of a positive assessment includes such concepts as cordiality, affection, respect, sympathy, acceptance, etc. Unconditionally, positively assessing another means assessing him positively, regardless of what feelings certain of his actions cause. Actions can be assessed in different ways, but the acceptance and recognition of an individual does not depend on them. The psychotherapist appreciates the patient’s personality as a whole; he equally feels and shows an unconditional positive assessment of both those experiences that the patient himself is afraid or ashamed of, and those with which he is pleased or satisfied.
3. The psychotherapist perceives the patient empathetically.
To have empathy means to perceive the subjective world, covering the entire complex of sensations, perceptions and memories of another, available to consciousness at a given moment, to perceive correctly, with inherent emotional components and meanings, as if the perceiver himself were this other person. This means - to feel the pain or pleasure of another as he himself feels it, and to relate, as he does, to the reasons that gave rise to them, but at the same time not for a minute forget that it is “as if” (if this is a condition is lost, then this state becomes a state of identification). Knowledge of the patient's subjective world, obtained empathically, leads to an understanding of the basis of his behavior and the process of personality change.
In the absence of these three conditions, the psychotherapeutic process cannot be complete.
Every psychotherapist meets these conditions to some degree, and, as Rogers notes, “some imperfect people are able to provide psychotherapeutic assistance to other also imperfect people”; however, the more pronounced these conditions are, the more successful the psychotherapeutic process will be and the greater the degree of personality integration that occurs.

Psychotherapeutic encyclopedia. - St. Petersburg: Peter. B. D. Karvasarsky. 2000 .

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