The secretion of saliva occurs when receptors are irritated. Digestion in the oral cavity, swallowing. A3. The storage carbohydrate in an animal cell is
Willpower is a quality of character that enables a person to achieve his goals and not give up in the face of difficulties. Achieving great heights is impossible without great effort and the ability to overcome inconvenience and hardship.
In our lives, lack of willpower is often cited as the main cause of many problems: the inability to get rid of bad habits, failure to achieve goals due to refusal to complete difficult tasks, reluctance to stop time-consuming entertainment for the sake of steps towards a big goal, etc. Why does this happen? I think that often the main reason for weak willpower is laziness. For example, a person dreams of achieving success in art or science, but at the same time does not show determination, strength of character, and does not do everything in his power necessary to achieve the goal. In this case, it will be almost impossible to realize even the most cherished dream.
A strong will does not always accompany a person as an innate character trait, but every person always has the opportunity to develop his will, strengthen it, and learn not to give up in the face of difficulties.
History knows many examples when people achieved their goals, despite the fact that they faced great difficulties and even misunderstanding and ridicule from other people. It seems to me that every person has great potential and opportunities, but many of them are never revealed due to the fact that people do not believe in themselves, are lazy and do not receive support and understanding from relatives. It is possible to overcome all these difficulties if you have a strong will and desire to achieve your goal.
I would like to cite as an example the vivid story of the world-famous Nick Vujicic. This man was born disabled: he never had arms and legs, which is why for a long time he suffered from loneliness and disrespectful attitude from society; However, by developing a strong willpower, he learned to cope with his problems, received higher education, was actively involved in public life, as a result of which he headed a charity organization and created a speaking company to provide motivation to people on the way to achieving their goals.
So, calling on people not only to dream, but also to go towards their dreams, this man, like many other strong people, say that the main driving force of a person’s destiny is himself, his efforts and aspirations, firmness and unshakable willpower.
Essay reasoning OGE 15.3
Several interesting essays
- Essay Is Vera Almazova Happy (reasoning based on Kuprin’s story The Lilac Bush)
Reading the famous work of the famous Russian writer Alexander Ivanovich Kuprin “The Lilac Bush” you can plunge into the world of true and devoted love, which makes people truly happy
Now my school is ordinary, but in the future it will be different. I think that there will be special doors in it to pass through using special keys; electronic textbooks and notebooks. The classrooms will have new equipment
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The concept of will. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Functions of the will. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Voluntary and involuntary volitional actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
The structure of volitional action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Volitional qualities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Theories of will. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Pathology of will. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
List of sources used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Introduction
Will is the ability to choose an activity and the internal efforts necessary for its implementation. A specific act, irreducible to consciousness and activity as such. Carrying out a volitional action, a person resists the power of directly experienced needs, impulsive desires: a volitional act is characterized not by the experience of “I want”, but by the experience of “need”, “I must”, awareness of the value characteristics of the goal of the action. Volitional behavior includes decision-making, often accompanied by a struggle of motives, and its implementation.
Weakness of will, disorganization, acting on the strongest motive, a relatively easy refusal to achieve a goal despite its objective significance - all this is characteristic of man.
We cannot always distinguish persistence from stubbornness, adherence to certain principles from the desire to achieve our goal at all costs, seeing in all this equal manifestations of will. Therefore, it is necessary to learn to separate genuine manifestations of will from false ones.
Concept of will
Will is the most complex phenomenon in human psychology. Will can be defined as a certain internal force of a psychological nature that can control psychological phenomena and human behavior. This is a form of internal control of behavior carried out by a person and associated with his consciousness and thinking.
Will is the highest level of regulation of human behavior. This is what makes it possible to set difficult goals for oneself, to achieve goals, overcoming internal and external obstacles, thanks to the will, a person makes a conscious choice when he is faced with the need to choose among several forms of behavior.
The main difference between human behavior and the behavior of other creatures is will. For 300 years, science has made almost no progress in understanding the meaning of will and volitional regulation. This is due to the fact that will is a subjective phenomenon that does not have specific external manifestations and physiological signs; it is not known which brain structures are responsible for volitional regulation.
Will presupposes self-restraint, restraining some fairly strong drives, consciously subordinating them to other, more significant, important goals, and the ability to suppress desires and impulses that directly arise in a given situation. At the highest levels of its manifestation, will presupposes reliance on spiritual goals and moral values, beliefs and ideals.
Functions of the will
In general, volitional processes perform three main functions.
The first - initiating (directly related to motivational factors) is to force one to start one or another action, behavior, activity, overcoming objective and subjective obstacles.
The second is stabilizing, associated with volitional efforts to maintain activity at the proper level in the event of external and internal interference of various kinds.
The third - inhibitory - consists in inhibiting other, often strong motives and desires, and other behavior options.
Will as a process is not only one of the highest forms of organization of all other mental processes. In volitional processes, personality and its mental processes not only manifest themselves, but are also formed and developed. In this regard, another function of the will is distinguished - genetic, productive. As a result of its action, the level of awareness and organization of other mental processes increases, and the so-called volitional personality traits are formed - independence, determination, perseverance, self-control, determination, etc.
Voluntary and involuntary
volitional actions
Any human activity is always accompanied by specific actions, which can be divided into two large groups: voluntary and involuntary. The main difference between voluntary actions is that they are carried out under the control of consciousness and require certain efforts on the part of the person aimed at achieving a consciously set song. For example, let’s imagine a sick person who with difficulty takes a glass of water in his hand, brings it to his mouth, tilts it, makes movements with his mouth, i.e. performs a whole series of actions united by one goal - to quench his thirst. All individual actions, thanks to the efforts of consciousness aimed at regulating behavior, merge into one whole, and the person drinks water. These efforts are often called volitional regulation, or will.
Voluntary or volitional actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary actions are reflex ones: constriction and dilation of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, sneezing, etc. The same class of movements includes withdrawing a hand when touching a hot object, involuntarily turning the head towards a sound, etc. Involuntary nature Our expressive movements are also usually worn: when we are angry, we involuntarily clench our teeth; when surprised, we raise our eyebrows or open our mouth; when we are happy about something, we begin to smile, etc.
Structure of volitional action
The structure of volitional action can be represented as a diagram:
Volitional activity always consists of certain volitional actions, which contain all the signs and qualities of will. In this action, the following simple steps can be clearly distinguished:
1) motivation;
3) decision making;
4) volitional effort.
Often the 1st, 2nd and 3rd stages are combined, calling this part of the volitional action the preparatory link, and the 4th stage is called the executive link. A simple volitional action is characterized by the fact that choosing a goal and making a decision to perform an action in a certain way are carried out without a struggle of motives.
In a complex volitional action, the following stages are distinguished:
1) awareness of the goal and the desire to achieve it;
2) awareness of a number of possibilities for achieving the goal;
3) the emergence of motives that affirm or deny these possibilities;
4) struggle of motives and choice;
5) accepting one of the possibilities as a solution;
6) implementation of the decision made.
Strong-willed qualities
Volitional qualities are relatively stable mental formations independent of a specific situation that certify the level of conscious self-regulation of behavior achieved by an individual and his power over himself. Volitional qualities combine moral components of the will, which are formed in the process of education, and genetic ones, closely related to the typological characteristics of the nervous system. For example, fear, the inability to endure fatigue for a long time, or to quickly make decisions largely depend on the innate characteristics of a person (strength and weakness of the nervous system, its lability).
Volitional qualities include three components: the actual psychological (moral), physiological (volitional effort) and neurodynamic (typological features of the nervous system).
Based on this, all volitional qualities are divided into “basal” (primary) and systemic (secondary). The primary ones include the volitional qualities themselves, which, in turn, are divided into two groups. The first group is characterized by determination, the ability to withstand volitional effort, this is patience, perseverance, perseverance.
The second group characterizes self-control and includes such qualities as courage, endurance, and determination. It is important for the education of will to present demands to the child that are appropriate and feasible for his age, with mandatory monitoring of their implementation. Lack of control can create a habit of quitting what you start without finishing it. The manifestation of willpower is determined by a person’s moral motives. The presence of strong beliefs and a holistic worldview in a person is the basis of the volitional organization of the individual.
Theories of will
To date, several scientific directions have emerged that interpret the concept of “will” in different ways: will as voluntarism, will as freedom of choice, will as voluntary control of behavior, will as motivation, will as volitional regulation.
1. Will as voluntarism
In attempts to explain the mechanisms of human behavior within the framework of the problem of will, a direction arose that in 1883, with the light hand of the German sociologist F. Tönnies, received the name “voluntarism” and recognizes the will as a special, supernatural force. According to the teaching of voluntarism, volitional acts are not determined by anything, but they themselves determine the course of mental processes. The German philosophers A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann went even further, declaring the will a cosmic force, a blind and unconscious first principle from which all mental manifestations of man originate. Consciousness and intellect are, according to Schopenhauer, secondary manifestations of the will. Spinoza denied causeless behavior, since “the will itself, like everything else, needs a cause.” I. Kant recognized as equally provable both the thesis about free will and the antithesis that the will is incapable. Solving the problem of human freedom, Kant subjected to critical analysis both the Christian doctrine of free will and the concept of mechanistic determinism.
2. Will as “free choice”
The Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza viewed the struggle of impulses as a struggle of ideas. Spinoza's will appears as awareness of external determination, which is subjectively perceived as one's own voluntary decision, as internal freedom.
However, the English thinker J. Locke tried to isolate the question of free choice from the general problem of free will. Freedom consists “precisely in the fact that we can act or not act according to our choice or desire.”
The American psychologist W. James considered the main function of the will to be making a decision about action when two or more ideas of movement are simultaneously present in the mind. Therefore, volitional effort consists in a person directing his consciousness to an unattractive but necessary object and focusing attention on it. Considering himself a voluntarist, W. James considered the will to be an independent force of the soul, with the ability to make decisions about action.
L.S. Vygotsky, when discussing the problem of will, also connected this concept with freedom of choice.
3. Will as “voluntary motivation”
The concept of will as a determinant of human behavior originated in Ancient Greece and was first explicitly formulated by Aristotle. The philosopher understood that it is not knowledge itself that is the cause of rational behavior, but a certain force that causes action in accordance with reason. This force is born, according to Aristotle, in the rational part of the soul, thanks to the combination of a rational connection with aspiration, which gives the decision a driving force.
Rene Descartes understood will as the ability of the soul to form a desire and determine the impulse for any human action that cannot be explained on the basis of a reflex. The will can slow down movements driven by passion. Reason, according to Descartes, is the will's own instrument.
G.I. Chelpanov identified three elements in a volitional act: desire, desire and effort. K.N. Kornilov emphasized that the basis of volitional actions is always a motive.
L.S. Vygotsky identified two separate processes in volitional action: the first corresponds to a decision, the closure of a new brain connection, the creation of a special functional apparatus; the second - executive - consists in the work of the created apparatus, in acting according to instructions, in executing a decision.
4. Will as an obligation
The specificity of this approach to understanding will is that will is considered as one of the incentive mechanisms, along with an actually experienced need.
Pathology of will
The pathology of higher and lower volitional activity is distinguished. The pathology of higher volitional activity includes hyperbulia. In this case, a pathological distortion of the motivation of volitional activity is revealed. Shows extraordinary persistence in achieving goals by any means necessary.
Hypobulia is a decrease in volitional activity, accompanied by poverty of motives, lethargy, inactivity, poor speech, weakening of attention, impoverished thinking, decreased motor activity, and limited communication. Abulia - lack of urges, desires, and desires. It is observed in chronic diseases with decreased intelligence and weakened affective activity. Often combined with symptoms such as: decreased social productivity - deterioration in the performance of social roles and skills; decreased professional productivity - deterioration in the performance of professional duties and skills, i.e., specific tasks and responsibilities, knowledge and standards in the professional field and its productivity ( material production, service, the sphere of science and art), social alienation is a form of behavior characterized by a persistent tendency to abandon social interactions and connections, etc.
The pathology of lower volitional activity includes the pathology of drives formed on the basis of instincts in the form of their strengthening, weakening or perversion. For example: pathology of the food instinct (bulimia - increased craving for food associated with a lack of feeling of satiety; anorexia - weakened or absent feeling of hunger), pathology of the instinct of self-preservation: phobias - an unreasonable feeling of fear for one’s life; agoraphobia - fear of open spaces, situations close to them, such as the presence of a crowd and the inability to immediately return to a safe place (usually home); pathology of the sexual instinct (hypersexuality, gender identity disorders)
There are also disorders of habits and desires (propensity to gamble).
Conclusion
Will is the ability to choose an activity and the internal efforts necessary for its implementation. In general, volitional processes perform three main functions: initiating, stabilizing, and inhibiting.
Any human activity is always accompanied by specific actions, which can be divided into two large groups: voluntary and involuntary.
The structure of the will can be represented in the form of the following stages:
1) motivation;
2) awareness of the possibilities of achieving the goal;
3) decision making;
4) volitional effort.
Pathology of the will is divided into lower and higher. The pathology of higher volitional activity includes hyperbulia. The pathology of lower volitional activity includes the pathology of drives formed on the basis of instincts in the form of their strengthening, weakening or perversion.
The work of I.P. Pavlov and his colleagues showed that various stimuli cause the secretion of saliva of varying quality and in unequal quantities.
Saliva from the parotid gland differs in its properties from the saliva produced by the submandibular and sublingual glands. It is transparent, less viscous, has no mucus, and is poor in enzymes. Saliva from the submandibular and sublingual glands is slightly cloudy, viscous, and rich in enzymes.
Table III. Diagram of human blood circulation: 1 - aorta; 2 - hepatic artery; 3 - intestinal artery; 4 - capillary network of a large circle; 5 - portal vein; 6 - hepatic vein; 7 - inferior vena cava; 8 - superior vena cava; 9 - right atrium; 10 - right ventricle; 11 - pulmonary artery; 12 - capillary network of the pulmonary circle; 13 - pulmonary vein; 14 - left atrium; 15 - left ventricle
Table IV. Scheme of the microscopic structure of the kidneys: A - outer (I) and inner (II) layers of the kidney; B - a separate glomerulus with a capsule and the beginning of the urinary tubule at high magnification; 1 - capsule with a ball of blood vessels in it; 2,3,4 - various parts of the urinary tubule; 5 - tubes through which urine passes from the tubules into the renal pelvis; 6 - artery; 7 - vessel bringing blood to the glomerulus; 8 - vessel that carries blood from the glomerulus; 9 - capillaries entwining the tubules; 10 - vein
It turned out that saliva is secreted not only for food irritants, but also for inedible, rejected substances: sand, stones, acid. These substances have no nutritional value, but can damage the oral mucosa. Salivation in response to such stimuli is protective.
From Table 11 it can be seen that saliva is separated more into dry substances than into wet ones. On crackers, salivation is more intense than on bread, and practically no saliva separates from water. A lot of saliva is secreted from the submandibular and sublingual glands into food substances, and almost 2 times less saliva flows from the parotid gland at this time. In response to rejected stimuli, the secretion of the parotid gland increases. This saliva is liquid, it quickly washes the mucous membrane and washes out the inedible substance from the oral cavity.
Table 11. Amount of saliva secreted into various substances
The separation of a large amount of saliva into food substances from the submandibular and sublingual glands has an important biological significance: after all, this saliva is rich in enzymes and therefore the process of chemical processing of food is more intense.
Regulation of salivation
Nerve fibers from both the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system approach the salivary glands.
If you cut the parasympathetic fibers and then begin to irritate the end of the fiber going to the salivary gland, you will observe a copious secretion of liquid, enzyme-poor saliva. Irritation of sympathetic fibers causes the release of a small amount of thick saliva rich in enzymes. Only the joint functioning of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers can ensure the normal functioning of the salivary glands and their adaptation to varying quantities and quality of the current stimulus (food or rejected).
A few seconds after food enters the mouth, salivation begins. Such a rapid response of the salivary glands to irritation of the receptors of the oral cavity suggests that salivation is carried out reflexively, with the participation of the nervous system.
Food entering the oral cavity irritates the endings of the taste nerves; excitation arises in them, which is transmitted along the centripetal nerves to the medulla oblongata - in salivary center. Here there is a transfer of excitation from the centripetal nerves to the centrifugal nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic), going to the salivary glands. Excitation covers the secretory cells of the salivary glands, and saliva of a certain quality and quantity is released. This is how it works unconditioned salivary reflex.
Saliva can be produced not only when food enters the mouth, but also when food is seen or smelled. This conditioned reflex. The conditioned reflex secretion of saliva occurs only if the sight, smell of food, or conversations about tasty food previously coincided with eating. The sight or smell of edible substances that a person has not eaten before will not cause salivation.
Digestion in the stomach
Gastric glands
A chewed and saliva-soaked bolus of food, in which the chemical transformations of starch have partially begun, is directed to its root by movements of the tongue and then swallowed. Further processing of food occurs in the stomach.
In the stomach, food is retained for 4 to 11 hours and is mainly subjected to chemical processing using gastric juice. Gastric juice is produced by numerous glands that are located in its mucous membrane. There are approximately 100 gastric glands on each square millimeter of mucosa.
There are three types of cells in the gastric glands: main- produce gastric juice enzymes, lining- produce hydrochloric acid and additional, in which mucus is produced.
The capacity of the stomach changes with age. In the first month after birth, it reaches 90-100 ml (at birth, the stomach capacity is only 7 ml). Further increase in gastric capacity occurs slowly. By the end of the first year of life it is 0.3 l, at the age of 4 to 7 years - 0.9 l, at 9-12 years - about 1.5 l. The capacity of an adult's stomach is 2-2.5 liters.
The mucus produced by the cells of the gastric mucosa protects it from mechanical and chemical damage. Hydrochloric acid not only performs a digestive function, but also has the ability to have a detrimental effect on bacteria that enter the stomach, i.e., it performs a protective function.
Eating food stimulates salivation reflexively. Salivation continues throughout the meal and stops soon after.
From oral receptors, signals are transmitted to the central nervous system through afferent fibers of the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. The main salivary center is located in the medulla oblongata. It is here, as well as in the lateral horns of the upper thoracic segments of the spinal cord, that signals from the oral cavity and higher parts of the brain arrive. From here, influences along the efferent parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers are directed to the salivary glands.
Parasympathetic innervation of the salivary glands begins from the nuclei of the medulla oblongata. Sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands is carried out from the lateral horns of the II-IV thoracic segments of the spinal cord.
Salivation begins according to the type of conditioned reflexes - in response to the sight and smell of food.
Reflex influences can also inhibit salivation until it stops. Such inhibition can be caused by painful irritation, negative emotions, mental stress, and dehydration of the body. All these effects reduce the activity of the food center and its part - the salivation center. The causative agents of the latter can be some humoral substances. Thus, copious secretion of saliva is observed during asphyxia due to irritation of the salivary center with carbonic acid.
Acts of chewing and swallowing
If the food is liquid, it is usually swallowed immediately; if it is solid, it is chewed. Chewing is the process of mechanical processing of food in the oral cavity, which consists of grinding its solid components and mixing with saliva. The act of chewing is partly reflexive, partly voluntary. It is regulated by a nerve center located in the medulla oblongata (mastication center). When food enters the oral cavity, the receptors of its mucous membrane (tactile, temperature, taste) are irritated, from where impulses are transmitted along the afferent fibers of the trigeminal nerve to the center of chewing, and then along the motor fibers (mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve) to the masticatory muscles. Swallowing is a reflex act that occurs as a result of irritation by a bolus of food of the sensitive endings of the soft palate, the base of the tongue and the back wall of the pharynx. This excitation travels along the glossopharyngeal nerves to the center of swallowing (the bottom of the fourth ventricle of the medulla oblongata). Efferent impulses go to the muscles of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus along the sublingual, trigeminal, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
Chewing phases: rest, introducing food into the mouth, indicative, basic, formation of a food bolus, swallowing.
Swallowing is a complex reflex act caused by irritation of the receptors of the oral cavity and pharynx, stimulation of the swallowing center of the medulla oblongata and representing the movement of a bolus of food from the oral cavity to the esophagus as a result of the coordinated activity of the muscles of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus.
Swallowing phases:
1) oral (voluntary),
2) pharyngeal (fast involuntary),
3) esophageal (slow, involuntary).
During swallowing, the soft palate rises, preventing food from entering the nasal cavity, and the epiglottis, closing the entrance to the larynx, prevents food from entering the respiratory tract. The volume of the food bolus is 5 - 15 ml.
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