Special (correctional) training

Children with general speech underdevelopment of levels 2 and 3 with severe forms of speech pathology such as dysarthria, rhinolalia, alalia, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia, stuttering are enrolled in a special (correctional) school of type 5. Junior schoolchildren with the above-listed diagnoses are enrolled in the 1st department of the speech school; the 2nd department includes children who have a stutter without general speech underdevelopment.

In the education system for students of departments 1 and 2, there is a general and a specific one.

Differences: Students of the 2nd department are trained according to the mass school program, and the pace of learning is equal to 1:1. Students of the 1st department are trained according to a special program (the program was developed by employees of the Institute of Defectology, the latest edition of the program is dated 1987). Over the course of 10 years of study, children master the program in the amount of 9 classes of a public school.

Speech school students receive a qualified state document on incomplete secondary education. If by the end of schooling it is possible to completely overcome the speech defect, then the child can continue his education. If speech disorders are successfully corrected at any stage of education, the child can be transferred to a mainstream school.

Similarities: all lessons are taught by teachers - speech therapists (in the lower grades, the exception is music, rhythm, and physical education lessons); Corrective work to eliminate speech disorders is carried out by a teacher who works with the class.

Special lessons are introduced into the elementary program of the 1st department: on the formation of pronunciation, speech development, and literacy training.

In secondary schools, subject teachers must complete defectology courses. Correctional and speech therapy work is carried out by a teacher of Russian language and literature, who must have the mandatory qualification “teacher-speech therapist”.

There are now 5 schools in Moscow for children with severe speech impairments, one of them specializes only in stuttering.

An integrated approach is carried out only in a boarding school: a speech therapist and 2 educators work with each class. Medical assistance is provided by a psychoneurologist. Psychologists work with children.

In a school setting, the child receives physiotherapeutic appointments, and a specialist in adapted physical education is appointed.

The problem of correctional education and upbringing of children with STD was considered by: T.P. Bessonova, L.F. Spirova, G.V. Chirkina, A.V. Yastrebova.

School-age children with mild speech impairments are educated in public schools and can receive speech therapy help at school speech centers. Children with physical impairment, as well as children with dysgraphia or dyslexia are enrolled in the speech center. Classes are conducted individually or with subgroups of 4-5 people. During the year, 30-40 people should go through the logo center. The speech therapist maintains the following documentation: extracts from the PMPC protocols on the enrollment of children at the speech center, speech cards and plans for individual work, a registration log, long-term and calendar plans, plans for working with parents and teachers.

Kindergarten for children with speech disorders as a type of special educational institution.
Children with speech disorders are accepted into speech therapy kindergartens, speech therapy groups at mass kindergartens, and receive help at preschool speech centers at mass kindergartens.

For children with general speech underdevelopment, senior and preparatory groups are opened. Children are accepted from the age of 5, for a period of study of two years. Group capacity is 10-12 people. The groups work according to special programs by T.B. Filicheva and G.V. Chirkina. In recent years, more and more often children with special needs development (with 1-2 levels of speech development) are accepted into groups from 4 years to 3 years. But there are no approved programs for such groups yet.

For children with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment, either a senior or preparatory group is opened for a period of study for one year. Group capacity is 12-14 people. For the preparatory group, the program was developed by G.A. Kashe, and for the senior group - by T.B. Filicheva and G.V. Chirkina.

For children with stuttering, special speech therapy groups are opened, which accept children from 2-3 years of age. Group capacity is 8-10 people. Groups of different ages. They work according to the program of S.A. Mironova, developed on the basis of the Program of training and education in a general kindergarten and the method of overcoming stuttering by N.A. Cheveleva. This technique involves the child accompanying his objective-practical actions with speech, therefore speech therapy work is based on drawing, modeling, appliqué, and design.

One of the most common forms of organizing speech therapy assistance for preschool children at present is the so-called preschool speech centers. There are no regulatory federal documents. A regulation has been developed for Moscow and the Moscow region, according to which children with functional disabilities or with impaired pronunciation of certain sounds should receive help. Children are enrolled through PMPC, at least 25-30 people per year. The group of children is flexible.

Correctional educational institutions are specially created, taking into account all needs, educational institutions providing students with developmental disabilities; training, education, treatment that contribute to their social adaptation and integration into society.

For the first time, special education for special needs children began in Spain in 1578, in England in 1648. In France in 1670. Attempts at special education for children with intellectual disabilities began in the 19th century, combined with research into the phenomenon of oligophrenia itself. In the Russian Empire, a system of special education for children appeared in 1797 with the establishment of the department of Empress Maria Feodorovna, which paid special attention to orphanages.

At the beginning of the 20th century, about 4.5 thousand charitable organizations and 6.5 thousand institutions for social support of children, including those with developmental disabilities, operated in the Russian Empire. In pre-revolutionary Russia, a network of special educational institutions was created, and by the beginning of the 20th century, when the experience of teaching and raising special children was adopted everywhere, knowledge was systematized - correctional pedagogy took shape as a unified system of correctional education.

Today in Russia, the activities of special (correctional) educational institutions are regulated by the standard regulation “On a special (correctional) educational institution for students with developmental disabilities” (1997) and the letter “On the specifics of the activities of special (correctional) educational institutions of types I-VIII” .

Special (correctional) institutions in Russia are divided into 8 types:

1.Special (correctional) educational institution I type is created for the training and education of deaf children, their comprehensive development in close connection with the formation of verbal speech as a means of communication and thinking on an auditory-visual basis, correction and compensation for deviations in their psychophysical development, to obtain general educational, labor and social preparation for independent life.

2. Correctional institution II type created for the education and upbringing of hearing-impaired children (with partial hearing loss and varying degrees of speech underdevelopment) and late-deafened children (who became deaf in preschool or school age, but retained independent speech), their comprehensive development based on the formation of verbal speech, preparation for free verbal communication in auditory and auditory-visual basis. Education for hearing-impaired children has a correctional focus, helping to overcome developmental deviations. At the same time, during the entire educational process, special attention is paid to the development of auditory perception and work on the formation of oral speech. Pupils are provided with active speech practice by creating an auditory-speech environment (using sound-amplifying equipment), which allows them to form speech on an auditory basis that is close to natural sound.

3.4. Correctional institutions III and IV types provide training, education, correction of primary and secondary developmental deviations in pupils with visual impairments, development of intact analyzers, formation of correctional and compensatory skills that contribute to the social adaptation of pupils in society. If necessary, joint (in one correctional institution) education of blind and visually impaired children, children with strabismus and amblyopia can be organized.

5. Correctional institution V type is created for the training and education of children with severe speech pathology, providing them with specialized assistance that helps them overcome speech disorders and related features of mental development.

6. Correctional institution VI species created for the training and education of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system (with motor disorders of various etiologies and severity, infantile cerebral palsy, with congenital and acquired deformations of the musculoskeletal system, flaccid paralysis of the upper and lower extremities, paresis and paraparesis of the lower and upper extremities ), for the restoration, formation and development of motor functions, correction of deficiencies in the mental and speech development of children, their social and labor adaptation and integration into society on the basis of a specially organized motor regime and subject-based practical activities.

7. Correctional institution VII type created for the training and upbringing of children with mental retardation, who, although potentially intact intellectual development capabilities, have weakness of memory, attention, insufficient tempo and mobility of mental processes, increased exhaustion, lack of formation of voluntary regulation of activity, emotional instability, to ensure correction of their mental development and emotional-volitional sphere, activation of cognitive activity, formation of skills and abilities of educational activities.

8. Correctional institution VIII species is created for the training and education of children with mental retardation with the aim of correcting deviations in their development through education and labor training, as well as socio-psychological rehabilitation for subsequent integration into society.

The educational process in institutions of types 1-6 is carried out in accordance with the general educational program of general education.

From the above, we see that the main goals of correctional education of any kind are social adaptation and integration of a special child into society, that is, the goals are completely identical to inclusion. So what is the difference between inclusive and specialized education? First of all, in ways to achieve the goal.

1. The methodology of correctional education is formed on the basis of knowledge of the physiological and mental characteristics of children with developmental disabilities. Individual and differentiated approach, special equipment, special techniques, clarity and didactics in explaining the material, special organization of the regime and class size based on the characteristics of the children, nutrition, treatment, unified work of defectologists, speech therapists, psychologists, doctors... this is not the entire list something that does not and cannot be presented in a mass school.

2. The main goal of a mass school is to give students knowledge for their subsequent use. In a general education institution, it is the level of knowledge that is primarily and significantly assessed; education takes up 5-10% of the program. In correctional institutions, on the contrary, education takes up the largest part of the program (70-80%). Labor 50%, physical and moral 20 - 30%. Great emphasis and emphasis is placed on teaching labor skills, while each correctional school, in accordance with its type, has its own workshops in which children are trained in precisely those professions that are available and permitted to them, in accordance with the approved list.

3. The organization of education in a correctional school consists of 2 parts. In the first half of the day, children receive knowledge from teachers, and in the second half of the day, after lunch and a walk, they study with a teacher who has his own program. This is training in traffic rules. Rules of behavior in public places. Etiquette. Role-playing games, excursions, practical tasks followed by analysis and analysis of the situation. Crafts... And much more that is not provided for in the general education program.

So the question arises: who better socializes, adapts and integrates special children to life in a macro-society with such significantly different approaches? Is it worth so mercilessly destroying what has been accumulated, worked out, and created for special children for centuries? Shops, courtyards, playgrounds, children's infrastructure, cooperation between mass and correctional schools are quite a sufficient stadium for the introduction of special children into society. So what is the essence of inclusion? And do we really need it that badly?

Special educational institutions are designed to educate people with various developmental disabilities. There are eight types of such schools in total. Correctional institutions of the 1st type have been created to educate deaf children. Special schools of the 2nd type are designed to educate children who are hard of hearing, have partial hearing loss and varying degrees of speech underdevelopment. Correctional schools of the 3rd and 4th types are organized for training, education, and correction of developmental deviations and disorders. Such educational institutions accept blind and visually impaired children, children with amblyopia, strabismus, complex combinations of visual impairments, and those suffering from eye diseases leading to blindness.

Correctional schools of the 5th type are intended for children with severe speech pathologies, children with severe general speech underdevelopment, and stuttering. Special educational institutions of the 6th type were created for the training and education of children with any developmental disorders of the musculoskeletal system, with cerebral palsy, and deformities of the musculoskeletal system. Special schools of the 7th type are intended for the education and upbringing of children with mental retardation. With intact intellectual development capabilities, such children experience attention, memory, increased exhaustion, insufficient tempo of mental processes, emotional instability, and lack of formation of voluntary regulation of activity. Corrective educational institutions of the 8th type were created for the training and education of children with mental retardation.

Correctional schools of the 8th type

The purpose of creating special educational institutions of the 8th type is the correction of developmental deviations, as well as socio-psychological ones for further integration into society. In such schools, classes are created for children with severe mental retardation; the occupancy of such classes should not be more than 8. Pupils from Type 8 schools have irreversible developmental disorders and will never be able to catch up with their peers, therefore, to a greater extent, these educational institutions are aimed at developing their life competence for adaptation in society, allowing them to avoid social catastrophes. In a small one, they are given academic knowledge, which is used to maintain socialization. Children with intellectual disabilities are educated in a special program until the 9th grade. Those of them who can master a blue-collar profession are subsequently engaged in low-skilled labor.

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CHAPTER1. Correctional education

Problems of upbringing, training, and socialization of children with developmental disabilities are currently one of the priority areas of activity not only of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, but also of the Ministry of Labor and Social Development, and the Ministry of Health.

Currently, the training and education of atypical children is carried out by qualified specialists, primarily by defectologists, whose training is carried out at the faculties of correctional pedagogy and special psychology of a number of pedagogical institutes and universities in the country.

Attention to the problems of atypical children on the part of the state is manifested in legislative acts aimed at organizing comprehensive assistance to such children and their families, creating the necessary conditions for the constant development and improvement of the special education system.

1.1 Correctional education for children with disabilities

The most complete definition of the concept education gave V.S. Lednev: “Education is a socially organized and standardized process of constant transmission by previous generations of subsequent generations of socially significant experience, which in ontogenetic terms is a biosocial process of personality formation. In this process, three main structural aspects are distinguished: cognitive, ensuring the assimilation of experience by the individual ; education of typological personality traits, as well as physical and mental development" Lednev V.S. Contents of education. - M., 1989..

Thus, education includes three main parts: training, upbringing and development, which, as B.K. Tuponogov points out, act unified, organically connected with each other, and it is almost impossible to isolate and differentiate them, and it is also inappropriate in dynamic conditions system activation.

Correctional education or correctional educational work is a system of special psychological, pedagogical, sociocultural and therapeutic measures aimed at overcoming or weakening the shortcomings of the psychophysical development of children with disabilities, imparting to them accessible knowledge, skills, development and formation of their personality as a whole . The essence of correctional education is the formation of the child’s psychophysical functions and the enrichment of his practical experience, along with overcoming or weakening, smoothing out his existing mental, sensory, motor, and behavioral disorders. Let us give an approximate meaningful decoding of the educational correctional process according to B.K. Tuponogov:

1. Correctional training- this is the assimilation of knowledge about ways and means of overcoming shortcomings of psychophysical development and the assimilation of ways to apply the acquired knowledge;

2. Correctional education- this is the education of typological properties and qualities of the individual, invariant to the subject specificity of activity (cognitive, labor, aesthetic, etc.), allowing adaptation in the social environment;

3. Correctional development- this is the correction (overcoming) of deficiencies in mental and physical development, improvement of mental and physical functions, intact sensory sphere and neurodynamic mechanisms for compensating for the defect.

The functioning of the correctional pedagogical system is based on the following provisions, formulated L.S. Vygotsky within the framework of the theory he developed of the cultural and historical development of the psyche: the complexity of the structure (specific features) of the defect, the general patterns of development of a normal and abnormal child. The goal of correctional work according to L.S. Vygotsky should be an orientation towards the comprehensive development of an anomalous child as an ordinary one, simultaneously correcting and smoothing out his shortcomings: “We must educate not the blind, but the child first of all. Educating the blind and deaf means educating deafness and blindness ...". Correction and compensation of atypical development can be effectively carried out only in the process of developmental education, with maximum use of sensitive periods and reliance on zones of current and proximal development. The educational process as a whole relies not only on established functions, but also on emerging ones. Hence, the most important task of correctional education is the gradual and consistent transfer of the zone of proximal development to the zone of actual development of the child. The implementation of correctional and compensatory processes of atypical child development is possible only with the constant expansion of the zone of proximal development, which should act as a guideline for the activities of teachers, educators, social educators and social workers. Systematic, daily qualitative improvement and increment in the level of proximal development are necessary.

Correction and compensation for the development of an atypical child cannot occur spontaneously. It is necessary to create certain conditions for this: pedagogization of the environment, as well as productive cooperation of various social institutions. The decisive factor on which the positive dynamics of psychomotor development depends are adequate upbringing conditions in the family and the early start of complex treatment, rehabilitation and correctional psychological, pedagogical, sociocultural activities, which imply the creation of an occupational therapy environment focused on the formation of adequate relationships with others, teaching children the simplest labor skills, development and improvement of integrative mechanisms with the aim of including, if possible on equal terms, children with problems in ordinary, generally accepted sociocultural relations. In this regard, L.S. Vygotsky wrote: “It is extremely important from a psychological point of view not to confine such children into special groups, but to practice their communication with other children as widely as possible.” A prerequisite for the implementation of integrated education is a focus not on the characteristics of the existing disorder, but, first of all, on the abilities and possibilities for their development in an atypical child. There are, as L.M. Shipitsyna notes, several models of integrated education for children with problems:

Education in a public school setting (regular class);

Training in a special correction class (levelling, compensatory training) at a public school;

Training in different educational programs within the same class;

Studying in a special educational correctional school or boarding school, where there are classes for healthy children.

The earlier the organization and implementation of corrective work begins, the more successfully the defect and its consequences are overcome. Taking into account the ontogenetic characteristics of children with special educational needs, a number of principles of correctional educational work are identified:

1. The principle of unity of diagnosis and developmental correction;

2. The principle of correctional and developmental orientation of training and education;

3. The principle of an integrated (clinical-genetic, neurophysiological, psychological, pedagogical) approach to diagnosing and realizing the capabilities of children in the educational process;

4. The principle of early intervention, implying medical, psychological and pedagogical correction of the affected systems and body functions, if possible, from infancy;

5. The principle of relying on the body’s preservation and compensatory mechanisms in order to increase the effectiveness of the ongoing system of psychological and pedagogical measures;

6. The principle of an individual and differentiated approach within the framework of correctional education;

7. The principle of continuity, continuity of preschool, school and vocational special correctional education.

Corrective educational work is a system of pedagogical measures aimed at overcoming or weakening disorders of the child’s psychophysical development through the use of special educational means. It is the basis of the process of socialization of abnormal children. All forms and types of classroom and extracurricular work are subordinated to the correctional task in the process of developing general educational and labor knowledge, skills and abilities in children. The system of correctional educational work is based on the active use of the preserved capabilities of an atypical child, “piles of health,” and not “spools of illness,” in the figurative expression of L.S. Vygotsky. In the history of the development of views on the content and forms of correctional educational work, there were various directions

1. Sensualistic(lat. sensus-sensation). Its representatives believed that the most disturbed process in an abnormal child is perception, which was considered the main source of knowledge of the world (Montessori M., 1870-1952, Italy). Therefore, special classes were introduced into the practice of special institutions to educate sensory culture and enrich the sensory experience of children. The disadvantage of this direction was the idea that improvement in the development of thinking occurs automatically as a result of improving the sensory sphere of mental activity.

2. Biologization(physiological). Founder - O. Decroli (1871-1933, Belgium). Representatives believed that all educational material should be grouped around the elementary physiological processes and instincts of children. O. Dekroli identified three stages of correctional and educational work: observation (the stage is in many ways consonant with the Montessori theory), association (the stage of development of thinking through the study of the grammar of the native language, general education subjects), expression (the stage involves working on the culture of the child’s direct actions: speech , singing, drawing, manual labor, movements).

3. Social - activity. A.N. Graborov (1885-1949) developed a system for educating sensory culture based on socially significant content: play, manual labor, object lessons, excursions into nature. The implementation of the system was carried out with the aim of instilling a culture of behavior in children with mental retardation, the development of mental and physical functions, and voluntary movements.

4. The concept of complex influence on the personality of an anomalous rebbenka in the process of education. The direction took shape in domestic oligophrenopedagogy in the 30s - 40s. XX century under the influence of research on the developmental significance of the learning process in general (Vygotsky L.S., Gnezdilov M.F., Dulnev G.M., Zankov L.V., Kuzmina-Syromyatnikova N.F., Solovyov I.M.). This direction is associated with the concept of a dynamic approach to understanding the structure of the defect and the development prospects of mentally retarded children. The main position of this direction was and remains at the present time that the correction of defects in cognitive processes in children with developmental disabilities is not isolated into separate classes, as was the case earlier (with Montessori M., Graborov A.N.), but is carried out in the entire process of teaching and raising atypical children.

Currently, defectology science and practice are faced with a number of organizational and scientific problems, the solution of which would make it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively improve the process of correctional education:

Creation of permanent full-time psychological-medical-pedagogical consultation commissions for the purpose of earlier detection individual structure of developmental defect in children and the beginning of correctional education and upbringing, as well as improving the quality of selection of children into special (auxiliary) educational institutions;

Implementation of total intensification of the process of correctional education of children with disabilities through defectological universal education and improving pedagogical skills;

Organization of a differentiated approach with elements of individualization to the didactic process within certain categories of children with developmental disabilities;

Distribution of correctional educational work in some specialized children's medical institutions where preschool children are treated, with the aim of optimally combining medical, health-improving and psychological-pedagogical work for the successful preparation of children for studying in a special educational correctional school;

Providing the opportunity to receive an adequate education for all children with psychophysical development disorders. There is insufficient (incomplete) coverage of atypical children in special (correctional) schools. Currently, there are about 800 thousand children in the country with developmental defects either not enrolled in school at all, or studying in mass schools, where they do not have adequate conditions for development and are not able to master the educational program;

Strengthening the material and technical base of special correctional preschool and school institutions;

Creation of a multi-purpose experimental production for the development and production of small series of technical educational aids for children with sensory and motor developmental disorders;

Development of sociological problems related to ontogenetic defects, which will help to uncover the causes of developmental deviations, prevent defects, plan the organization of a network of special institutions, taking into account the prevalence of children with disabilities in different regions of the country;

Expanding the network of sociocultural support for families raising children with disabilities, defectological education of parents, introducing innovative forms of work of educational institutions with the family of an atypical child.

The Institute of Correctional Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education is engaged in the development of these problems.

Currently in the Russian Federation there are more than 1,800 special educational correctional preschool and school institutions for children with disabilities. More than 280 thousand schoolchildren study there. More than 125 thousand preschool children with developmental problems are brought up in special kindergartens and specialized groups of preschool educational institutions.

In addition, those created since 1981 have become widespread. at mass schools there are classes for children with mental retardation (over 135 thousand children in the Russian Federation), compensatory education (more than 210 thousand children in the Russian Federation).

The field of correctional pedagogy and special psychology is supplemented by speech therapy centers at mass secondary schools and children's educational institutions, as well as various consulting and training centers. A positive aspect is the absence of pronounced practices of sociocultural isolation of atypical children from other members of society, ordinary children, the presence of all constitutional rights for people with problems, and the possibility of integrated education.

Also in the Russian Federation, work is underway to prevent developmental disorders in childhood. It is complicated by material and social difficulties, a decrease in the cultural level of parents, not always high quality medical care, and the lack of targeted implementation of comprehensive programs for habilitation and rehabilitation of atypical children in a family environment.

A number of achievements can be noted in eliminating the causes of anomalies: the elimination of severe infectious and epidemic diseases (plague, cholera, smallpox, malaria, trachoma, typhus, etc.), reducing the incidence of typhoid fever, diphtheria, creating a system of medical genetic counseling, opening reproduction centers and family planning, immunological centers.

For the purpose of social, labor and sociocultural adaptation of persons with physical disabilities, public organizations of citizens deprived of sight and hearing were created in the Russian Federation - the All-Russian Society of the Blind (VOS, 1923) and the All-Russian Society of the Deaf (VOG, 1926). Their functions include improving cultural and living conditions, increasing the general educational and professional knowledge of members of society, as well as their employment. The societies have their own training and production special enterprises and workshops, which enjoy benefits, in particular, on taxation. Within the framework of VOG and VOS there is a network of houses of culture, clubs, and libraries. The World Health Organization (WHO) is directly involved in the prevention of diseases that cause developmental disorders.

The state's concern for abnormal children and adults is enshrined in law. The main legal act is the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), which regulates the foundations of the social and state structure, the basic rights and responsibilities of citizens. Taking into account the provisions of the Constitution, other laws are being created that provide legal benefits for children and adults with disabilities of psychophysical development (for example, the Law “On Social Protection of Persons with Disabilities”, Presidential Decree “On measures to create an accessible sphere of life for people with disabilities, etc.). Targeted federal programs are being developed : “Children of Russia”, “Disabled Children”, “Development of social services for families and children”, collectively aimed at the development of both general and special education, healthcare, and the socio-cultural sphere.

The adoption by the State Duma of the Russian Federation in 1996 was of great progressive importance. Law on Education of Persons with Disabilities (sp.esocial education).

The law provides for a variety of types of education for children with disabilities in psychophysical development: integrated education. In an educational institution of integrated education, the number of persons with disabilities should not be more than 20% of the total number of students. , training in a special educational correctional institution, training at home, followed by certification and, if successful, reimbursement of funds spent on training. This gives parents the opportunity to choose the types of educational institutions and the program in which the child will study. During the process of a child’s education at school, parents can take part, along with specialists, in the development and adjustment of an individual pedagogical rehabilitation program for their child. Art. 13 of the Law establishes the right of a person with disabilities studying in a general educational institution to use the services of an assistant during classes.

In addition, parents have the right to be present at the work of the psychological-medical-pedagogical commission, disagree with the diagnosis and appeal the decision of the PMPC in court. In this case, an independent examination is appointed, and the parents of a child with disabilities have the right to choose experts. The issue of transporting children to an institution at the expense of the state (for example, by bus) has been considered. Parents have the right to non-competitive admission to a higher education institution in a specialty that corresponds to the profile of their child’s disease. When a child with disabilities enters a higher education institution for a specialty “close” to his impairment (diagnosis), the competition for him is canceled.

Identification of the reasons that complicate learning and the provision of diagnostic and advisory assistance to parents and teachers are called upon to be carried out by specialists of the permanent interdepartmental psychological, medical and pedagogical commissions (PMPC), the functioning of which is regulated by the relevant Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation (1233 of December 8, 1990). The standard regulation on PMPK was approved by the board of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation on April 12, 1995.

PMPC is a legal entity and, in accordance with this, bears full responsibility for its correctional, diagnostic and advisory activities. The commission carries out comprehensive psychological, medical and pedagogical diagnostics of children and adolescents under the age of 18 to determine the forms and content of their upbringing and education, taking into account social, psychological and physical capabilities. Therefore, the obligatory members of the commission are: a psychoneurologist, a speech pathologist, a speech therapist, and a psychologist. The family thus gets the opportunity to comprehensively examine the child and receive a conclusion from an expert commission with recommendations. Problems in the field of diagnosing the development of atypical children are the temporary limitation of the scope of social, medical and psychological-pedagogical examination, the lack of separate premises (rooms) for specialists, which, on the one hand, is positive, since it is possible to work in a team, increasing the objectivity of conclusions, and on the other side - the child is in a hyperstressed state. All this can lead to a diagnostic error and, consequently, to the choice of psychosocial and corrective-compensatory measures and educational rehabilitation programs that are inadequate to the child’s abilities. The problem of early diagnosis is relevant due to the presence of a significant number of hereditary developmental disorders, which complicates the implementation of habilitation and rehabilitation processes, and in some cases makes them impossible.

1.2 Correction of children's fears

Identifying Fears

Before helping children overcome their fears, it is necessary to find out what specific fears they are susceptible to. You can find out the full range of fears with a special survey, provided there is emotional contact with the child, a trusting relationship and the absence of conflict. You should ask about fears to one of your familiar adults or specialists when playing together or having a friendly conversation. Subsequently, the parents themselves should clarify what exactly and how much the child is afraid.

Conversation is presented as a condition for getting rid of fears through playing and drawing them. It makes sense to start asking about fears according to the proposed list in children no earlier than 3 years old; the questions should be understandable at this age. The conversation should be conducted slowly and thoroughly, listing fears and expecting the answer “yes” - “no” or “I’m afraid” - “I’m not afraid.” The question of whether the child is afraid or not should be repeated only from time to time. This avoids inducing fears and their involuntary suggestion. When stereotypically denying all fears, they are asked to give detailed answers like “I’m not afraid of the dark,” and not “no” or “yes.” The adult asking the questions sits next to, and not opposite, the child, not forgetting to periodically encourage and praise him for telling it like it is. It is better for an adult to list fears from memory, only occasionally looking at the list, rather than reading it out.

“Please tell me, are you afraid or not afraid:

1. when you are alone;

2. attacks;

3. get sick, become infected;

4. die;

5. that your parents will die;

6. some people;

7. moms or dads;

8. that they will punish you;

9. Baba Yaga, Kashchei the Immortal, Barmaley, Snake Gorynych, miracleOvisch;

10. be late for kindergarten (school);

11. before falling asleep;

12. scary dreams (which ones);

13. darkness;

14. wolf, bear, dogs, spiders, snakes (animal fears);

15. cars, trains, planes (fears of transport);

16. storms, hurricanes, earthquakes, floods (fears of the elements);

17. when very high (fear of heights);

18. when it is very deep (fear of depth);

19. in a cramped, small room, room, toilet, roomlon a bus (fear of closed spaces);

20. water;

21. fire;

22. fire;

23. war;

24. large streets, squares;

25. doctors (except dentists);

26. blood (when blood flows);

27. injections;

28. pain (when it hurts);

29. unexpected, sharp sounds, when something suddenly falls, knocks (bOyou shudder and shudder."

Overcoming Fears

The parent's reaction to fear should be calm and empathetic. You cannot remain indifferent, but excessive worry can lead to increased fears. Try discussing his fear with your child, ask him to describe his feelings and the fear itself. The more the child talks about fear, the better - this is the best therapy, the more he talks, the less he is afraid.

Try to convince your child to be afraid of something, but do not downplay the fear, but share your experience, if you have any, advise something. You can come up with a fairy tale and develop a set of activities with your child to combat fear. For example, a child, afraid that someone would break into his window at night, came up with a whole story about how he defeated an intruder with the help of a toy gun, which was always ready for such an occasion. However, the child must try to adhere to the developed rules. If the fear is expressed, then you need to fight it little by little. For example, if a child is afraid of dogs, first you should go to a place where there is a small puppy and play with him, then perhaps go to the bird market, etc.

Of course, try to increase the child’s self-esteem, support activities that are successful for him, and always be able to tactfully assess the child’s success in overcoming fears. Remember that a direct question is dangerous - it can provoke a relapse. Always try to prepare your child for an approaching threatening situation, provide him with reliable protection, but do not make it excessive.

There are many methods for relieving fears in psychotherapy, but we will focus on the most effective and simple ones.

Drawing fear

A neurotic child should depict his fear on a piece of paper. This task is completed at home over two weeks. During the second lesson, the child is asked to think and draw on the back of the same sheet of paper how he is not afraid of this fear. Thus, unconscious fear is brought to the level of consciousness, and, reflecting on its fear, the child heals himself.

There are times when children refused to draw on the back of the sheet. At the same time, they say that the fear is very strong and they do not know what to do to get rid of it. In such cases, a psychologist, in the presence of a child, can take a sheet with a picture of fear and burn it with the words: “You see, a small handful of ash remains from the evil monster, and now we will blow it away and the fear will evaporate.” This somewhat mystical technique works extremely flawlessly; it can be used several times until the desired effect is achieved.

Writing a story on the topic of fear

In this case, the psychologist’s task is to bring the child closer to reality so that he realizes the absurdity of his fear. This is done through introducing elements of humor into the story.

For example, an eight-year-old girl who was afraid of a bear. According to the girl, he could have climbed into the second floor window at night and killed her. The girl had disturbed sleep and appetite, and had problems at school. Together with the girl, we drew a bear on paper, and at the same time I told her about the behavior of this animal in the wild, taiga. To one of the classes I brought reproductions of paintings by Russian artists who painted bears. The girl listened with pleasure as I read Krylov’s fables “The Bear in the Nets”, “The Hardworking Bear”, and the poem “Toptygin and the Fox” in their faces. The girl noted that in all fairy tales the bear is presented as a loser, a lovable fool who is a little pitied.

Then we wrote a story together about how a bear went on a date with a she-bear at night and got lost. He tried to climb into someone else's window, but couldn't reach it and fell into a snowdrift, hitting a big bump. Christina laughed loudly as she listened to this story over and over again. Now she was no longer afraid of the big, angry bear. Waking up at night, she remembered this joke, smiled and calmly fell asleep.

Use of games, small performances and dramatizations

In group classes, children are asked to write a fairy tale or come up with a scary story. They can begin with the words: “Once upon a time...” or “Once upon a time...”. Children with fear neurosis tend to invent stories with sad endings. The psychologist’s task is to play out their stories in the group. But there is no need to insist on this; the child himself must offer his story for production. Then the author assigns roles and the performance begins.

During a group of fourth-grade children, one boy wrote a story about how a robber entered a house at night and killed all family members. During the performance, another boy, who played the robber, refused to play according to the proposed script and unexpectedly proposed a new plot. He snuck into the room where his parents lived and accidentally stepped on a sleeping dog. She barked and everyone woke up. But since there was only one robber, and there were many household members, he fled in disgrace, forgetting even to take the loot. Everything was played out very temperamentally. Even the author himself, who did not take part in the performance, smiled contentedly.

In groups of older children, scenes from real life can be used. They should be small and in the form of a dialogue. One hero is negative, and the other is positive. At the same time, children can simply improvise on a topic suggested by a psychologist: “You were stopped by a policeman,” “You are waiting on the street for a friend, but he has been gone for a long time, and then finally he appears,” “A quarrel with a friend,” etc.

Use of horror films

Despite the controversy of this method, it is quite usable. A prerequisite is that the film must be exactly on the topic of fear (for example, fear of a hurricane or flood) and have a positive ending.

"Open war" with fear

Case from practice. Dima, 12 years old, victim of a house explosion in Moscow (autumn 2004). According to the description of relatives, he is a quiet, balanced boy, loved by friends and teachers. After the tragedy, he was afraid to stay at home alone, ride in the elevator, and was afraid of narrow, enclosed spaces.

The success of treatment in such cases depends on the child’s internal readiness to overcome his problems and to wage “open war” with them. During classes, Dima lay down on the floor and covered himself with a blanket. The time he spent in artificial isolation gradually increased from several seconds to 15-20 minutes. So, gradually, the child learned to fight his fear and experience it. Then grandma came to class, and everyone took a blanket and put Dima inside, rocking it. Dima shouted loudly: “I’m not afraid of anything! I am strong! I will succeed!"

In group therapy, a simple game was invented. Dima stood in the center of a circle of 10 people. His task was to fight everyone and break out of the circle. The use of this psychological technique of working with fears stimulates courage, self-confidence and self-confidence in the child. In addition, Dima realized that he was not alone and all his friends were ready to provide him with help and support.

Fantasizing

Not all children have specific fears. There are cases when uncertainty, inexplicable anxiety and suppressed emotions prevail in a child. In such cases, a neurotic child can be asked to close his eyes and fantasize on the topic “How do I imagine my fear.” Not only imagine what it looks like and its size, but also what it smells like, what fear feels like. The child is asked to be this fear and tell on his behalf about his feelings, why this fear scares people. Let the child, on behalf of fear, tell himself who he is and how to get rid of it. During dialogues, you need to monitor the change in the child’s intonation, because it is here that important memories may flash through, concerning his main internal problems, which need to be worked with in the future.

I recommend using all the methods described above not individually, but in combination. You need to improvise, approach each child individually. Let him choose what he likes best - drawing, writing a story or dramatizing fear. This is an excellent start for a further frank conversation with the child about his internal problems and experiences.

However, treating a child without parental therapy most often does not bring positive results. 90% of all children's fears are generated by the family and are firmly supported by it.

A. Spivakovskaya: “The main thing that parents need to do in such cases is to eliminate the main reasons for the increase in the child’s general anxiety. To do this, force yourself to take a close look at the child, at yourself, at the whole situation in the family as a whole. It is necessary to critically reconsider your requirements for the child, paying attention to whether the parental requests do not exceed the child’s real capabilities, whether he too often finds himself in a situation of “Total failure”. Parents need to remember that nothing inspires a child more than good luck, the joy of a well-done, even the smallest task, and nothing is more capable of drowning out a child’s sense of self-esteem and increasing the feeling of anxiety than repeated failures. Then it will become clear which way parents whose children experience fears should direct their upbringing. Parents should do their best to increase the child’s sense of self-confidence, give him the experience of success, show him how strong he is, how he can, with effort, cope with any difficulty. It is very useful to reconsider the methods of reward and punishment used, to evaluate: is there too much punishment? If this is the case, then incentives should be strengthened, aimed at increasing self-esteem, at reinforcing the child’s self-esteem, at nurturing confidence and enhancing a sense of security.

It is precisely when it is difficult for a child, when he is overwhelmed by a painful experience, that parents can most fully show their love, their parental tenderness. Helping a child cope with fears means experiencing the joint joy of a newfound victory over oneself. This will be your common victory, because not only the child needs to change, but also his parents. You should not spare labor to achieve such a victory, because the reward will be your own child - freed from fear, and therefore prepared to gain new life experiences, open to joy, to happiness (A. Spivakovskaya, St. Petersburg T.2, 1999).

A. Fromm, T. Gordon believe that in order to help a child overcome fear, parents need to understand what lies behind the child’s fear. It is useful to make any effort to improve your relationship with your children. And to do this, we must moderate our demands on children, punish them less often and pay less attention to the hostility that they sometimes show towards us. We must let them know that the anger they sometimes feel towards their parents, and we towards them, is a completely natural and normal phenomenon and it can affect our friendly feelings. This, of course, is the point of view of an adult, and we can prove our love to a child only by an even and unchanging attitude towards him.

Removing fear when it arises depends to a large extent on how much we manage to calm the child down and restore his mental balance: how much we understand him and how we relate to his fears. It is necessary to create such an environment in the family so that children understand that they can tell us without hesitation about everything that frightened them. And they will do this only if they are not afraid of us and feel that we do not judge them, but understand them.

We must respect the child’s fear, even if it is completely groundless, or act as if you have known for a long time and are not at all surprised by his fear; In addition, one must make it a rule to use the concept of fear without any fear and not consider it a word that is prohibited.

2. Political consultant in Russian electionsAprivate campaigns

CHAPTER I. Psychological assistance to the client during professionalWithnational political consulting during an election campaign or public relations workAndclient's station

1. 1 Correction of Client behavior

After identifying the personal problem that needs to be eliminated during psychotherapeutic intervention, the third phase begins - the correction of the Client’s inappropriate reactions and behaviors in order to normalize them. As a result of the correction, the Client's political behavior should become more effective, self-esteem - more adequate, relations with the outside world - better.

Correction can be carried out with various psychotherapeutic means. Their choice is largely determined by the following criteria:

1. personal problems of the Client;

2. characteristics of the Client’s character;

3. time and psychophysiological resources of the Client;

4. the circumstances in which the correction will be carried out;

5. situational factors.

One of the common methods of correcting the Client’s inadequate reactions to the outside world and his behavior is a psychotherapeutic conversation in line with rational therapy. During a psychotherapeutic conversation, the Consultant appeals to the Client’s intellectual sphere, to his logic, explaining the causes of personal traumas and their impact on the Client’s political behavior and his relations with the outside world. Such a conversation should not turn into a Consultant monologue. The more active the Client is, the more questions he formulates, the more effective the results of psychotherapeutic correctional interaction will be.

During a psychotherapeutic conversation, the Consultant can invite the Client to give his interpretation of his personal problem. However, in case of disagreement with the Client’s opinion, the Consultant should not refute it, but explain the true cause-and-effect relationship, supporting his explanations with arguments understandable to the Client.

A psychotherapeutic conversation can consist of one or two sessions, and the Client must have unlimited time. The Consultant needs to prepare the Client, explain to him the purpose of the meeting and begin only if the Client is in the right frame of mind. He should be tuned to intense mental work and feel quite alert. A client in an irritated or sleepy state cannot perceive the Consultant’s logic.

During a psychotherapeutic conversation, the Consultant must apply all knowledge from the field of persuasive communication. He must show the Client that he is committed to productive interaction with a person who is pleasant to him, whom he values and respects.

The Consultant not only listens to the Client’s position, but does it actively. This means that he has constant eye contact with the Client, he asks him questions, supporting them with friendly gestures, nods of his head, words like “yes, yes,” “I see.”

The Consultant must be an emotional listener and conduct the conversation in such a way as to constantly maintain the Client's orientation towards the final product of interaction, which is desirable for the Client. By expressing his own emotions, the Consultant teaches the Client to be less dry and constrained, and the Client begins to understand the “beneficial” aspects of emotional behavior - better mutual understanding, liberation from “locks”.

W. Urey, an American political psychologist, in his book “Overcoming No, or Negotiating with Difficult People” - and clients, of course, are difficult people - gives several recommendations that are directly related to the process of psychotherapeutic conversation with the Client (74).

So, for example, after the Consultant has listened to the Client’s position, he must answer him in his own words, so that the Client is convinced that he was heard and understood adequately. The Consultant should more often recognize the Client’s right to his existing point of view. This does not automatically mean that the Consultant agrees with her, but it does help establish an atmosphere of understanding and respect.

Acknowledging the Client's feelings helps to gain mutual understanding. The client better assimilates what the Consultant explains to him if he feels that his feelings are well understood and, moreover, that he is not alone in them. Nothing brings us closer to people like the words: “I share your feelings.”

During the psychotherapeutic conversation, it is necessary to agree with the Client at every opportunity. This does not mean that you need to agree where the positions of the Consultant and the Client fundamentally diverge. But where there is a coincidence of positions, a formula of agreement must be pronounced. W. Ury calls this "accumulation of yes."

Following his advice, the Consultant should optimistically recognize differences in positions with the Client. These differences are natural and after they are clarified, it is quite possible for the points of view of the Client and the Consultant to converge. However, the Consultant must lead a “line of rapprochement” without compromising the Client’s self-esteem.

Maintaining the Client's self-respect and the feeling that he is a leader, despite all the problems that he discusses with the Consultant, is the most important aspect in the Consultant's activities, especially during the psychotherapeutic conversation. One of its distinctive features is explaining the problem to the Client, and a very dangerous moment for the business can be the moment when the Client sees in the person of the Consultant a mentor and a threat to preserving his own image “I am a leader.”

The Consultant must be able to respond to the Client’s objections. This is not always an easy task. An authoritarian or highly frustrated Client reacts very painfully to objections, sometimes he is simply intolerant of them. The art of objecting to the Client does not come immediately, and the Consultant needs to acquire special knowledge in this area.

During an objection from the Client, the Consultant must be very confident, calm and friendly. He should neither humiliate the Client nor fawn over him. He is not a teacher who disciplines a foolish student, but he is also not a child who is taught by a big and strong uncle-politician.

There is a motive behind every objection. And one of the Consultant’s tasks is to determine it. Such a motive may be the Client’s desire to protect his image. Such a motive may be the Client’s confidence in the Consultant’s insufficient qualifications. In any event, the Consultant must give this matter its utmost consideration.

The consultant should not respond to the objection right away; he can take a timeout. Before giving an immediate answer, it is useful for the Consultant to take a 1-1.5 second pause, which will give his answer more seriousness and will not allow the Client to evaluate it as a spontaneous, frivolous reaction.

The consultant should not make so-called “you statements” in response to objections. For example, when arguing your disagreement with the Client’s objection, the formula “You are wrong, because...” should not be used under any circumstances. The counselor should use "I" statements. For example, “It’s difficult for me to agree with this statement because...”. Firstly, this is less offensive to the Client, who is unpleasant to hear once again from the Consultant that he is wrong. Secondly, this makes the Consultant more generous in the eyes of the Client, who does not want to assert himself at his expense.

And, of course, the commandment for the Consultant when responding to the Client’s objections is to maintain a friendly facial expression, intonation, “eye” contact, and soft, non-aggressive gestures. The entire arsenal of non-verbal behavior of the Consultant should be aimed at one thing - to convey to the Client the thesis that there is cooperation between them, and not a battle. The gain is not in defending your position, but in jointly solving the Client’s problems.

One of the correction methods most well received by the Client is role-playing game in all its diversity. Clients, regardless of their age and position, easily agree to the offer to “lose the situation.” A role-playing game can be structured in different ways, based on the psychological concept taken as a basis. In some cases, this may be a game and subsequent transactional analysis. In other cases, the Client is invited to play the roles of people from his significant environment. Sometimes the Client plays the role of his opponent in the political arena.

The most effective games for correcting personal trauma acquired in childhood in interaction with parents is to play one’s role in childhood - during the period of a traumatic situation, and oneself in the current state. This should be followed by a “dialogue” between the Client’s two selves – a child’s and an adult’s.

This method was applied in the case of Client B. He was asked to play 5-year-old Sasha, who would complain to the Consultant about how his parents offended him. The essence of the situation was as follows: he ran away to the lake without his parents’ permission and disappeared there the whole day. His parents looked for him everywhere, did not find him, and decided that an accident had happened. When he came home in the evening, his father whipped him with a belt and forbade him to leave the house and play with the boys. They, in turn, began to tease him as a "mama's boy." Sashenka took both his father’s reaction and the boys’ humiliation extremely painfully.

The thirty-five-year-old leader took on the role of a 5-year-old child well. His facial expressions, intonation, and gestures were fully consistent with the hero’s age. The resentment and bitterness sounded absolutely fresh and genuine. Then, after the “child’s” monologue, V. was asked to calm Sashenka down, explain to him what was going on in the souls of his parents when they could not find him, from the position of 35-year-old Alexander. The adult Alexander tried to find words accessible to a five-year-old child that could convince him that the basis of his parents’ actions was primarily fear for him, love for him, and not at all a desire to humiliate him.

This game helped reduce the trauma V. received in his relationship with his parents and changed his self-esteem.

Video training helps the Client to remove the fear not only of the camera, but also of the situation in which he will have to face the truth: “I really sometimes look funny and ridiculous, saying such important and serious things.” During training and analysis, many clients begin to make excuses, explaining that they were not prepared and did not know where to start. However, they still get the maximum benefit from this correction method.

During video training, the Client develops the ability to control his own nonverbal behavior. He begins to understand the connection between his internal state, emotions and their external manifestations in public behavior. The client realizes why even the most meaningful texts of his speeches sometimes not only do not resonate with the audience, but sometimes also cause distrust and a negative reaction.

Sometimes the first training exercises cause an almost shock reaction in the Client - an uncertain character with “dancing” legs and chaotic, unintelligible gestures looks at him from the screen. He rolls his eyes and grabs his ear funny. Once the Client realizes that he has the power to make this character behave differently, he recognizes how important the video training experience was for him.

An exercise to develop resourcefulness and the ability to spontaneously speak on any topic turns out to be very useful for the Client. 1.5 minute preparation. These exercises allow a political leader to acquire “quick speech response” skills. In reality, a leader should be able to deliver a speech on almost any topic even if woken up in the middle of the night.

A special type of training is “press conference” training, the purpose of which is to develop an instant, adequate reaction to any unpleasant issues that usually arise during elections or have their roots in various rumors that arise around the Client. In addition to the Client and the Consultant, this training often involves people from the politician’s inner circle. Here it is especially important that they do not spare him, do not be shy, but ask questions in the same harsh formulations that can be heard at a politician’s meetings with voters or journalists.

This type of training also helps to develop a sense of confidence, the ability to face any question without fear and relieve painful reactions to unfair rumors and accusations.

1.2 Correction of behavior and fears using the example of the Moscow metro

The idea of building a metro in Moscow continued to be consistently rejected until the plenum of 1931, now for political reasons: the metro is an effective means of transporting workers to factories and factories, and therefore a means of exploitation.

When the construction of the first line was almost completed, they suddenly remembered the architects, since it was urgent to turn the underground stations into palaces. Nikolai Colley (Le Corbusier's former collaborator on the house on Myasnitskaya) talked about it like this:

“On March 1, 1934, they called us on the phone and said:

Dear friends, we need to make metro stations.

Which station exactly?

To you, comrade Kolli, Kirovskaya, to you, comrade, so-and-so.

What kind of stations should be made?

Beautiful stations.

That's all! We did not receive any instructions other than this, there were no explanatory meetings.”

There was still one goal: to destroy the feeling of undergroundness. Somewhere in the depths of their souls, both the authorities, the architects, and the passengers retained an archaic fear of underground space. Articles by station architecture authors and their critics are read like a spell:

“Paralyze the feeling of undergroundness” (S. Kravets).

“I will definitely destroy the feeling of a basement” (D. Chechulin).

“Destruction of the passenger’s feeling of going underground” (B. Vilensky).

This anti-subterraneanness was achieved by the illusory image of the sky on the ceilings: in the mosaics of Deineka on Mayakovskaya, in the paintings of Korin on Komsomolskaya-ring, in the luminous vaults of Dushkin and Lichtenberg at the Palace of Soviets station, in the light wells of the Yakovlevs on Sokol.

The interpretation of the sky and light at these stations again brings to mind Russian fairy tales. “Fairytale light,” wrote Andrei Sinyavsky, “has luminescent properties. The colors here are mixed on fire, melted and drowned in gold. His presence is revealed by the undying outpouring of light.”

It was precisely this fabulousness, artistry and emotional tension created by the architecture of the stations that, according to the creators' plans, distinguished the Soviet metro from, say, the American one. “In the architectural solutions of the New York subway,” wrote S. Kravets, “there is more calculation than love.” [...]

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