Plant poisons and their properties. Natural poisons. Quinine is the main alkaloid

Poisons have been used from ancient times to the present day as weapons, antidotes, and even medicine.

In fact, poisons are all around us, in drinking water, in household items and even in our blood.

The word "poison" is used to describe any substance that can cause a dangerous disorder in the body.

Even in small quantities, the poison can lead to poisoning and death.

Here are some examples of some of the most insidious poisons that can be fatal to humans.

1. Botulinum toxin

Many poisons can be lethal in small doses, so it is quite difficult to single out the most dangerous one. However, many experts agree that botulinum toxin, which is used in Botox injections to smooth out wrinkles is the strongest.

Botulism is a serious disease leading to paralysis, caused by botulinum toxin, which is produced by bacteria Clostridium botulinum. This poison causes damage to the nervous system, respiratory arrest and death in terrible agony.

Symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, double vision, facial weakness, speech impediments, difficulty swallowing and others. The bacterium can enter the body through food (usually poorly canned foods) and through open wounds.

2. Poison ricin

Ricin is natural poison obtained from castor beans castor bean plants. A few grains are enough to kill an adult. Ricin kills cells in the human body, preventing it from producing the proteins it needs, resulting in organ failure. A person can become poisoned by ricin through inhalation or ingestion.

If inhaled, symptoms of poisoning usually appear within 8 hours of exposure and include difficulty breathing, fever, cough, nausea, sweating and chest tightness.

If ingested, symptoms appear in less than 6 hours and include nausea and diarrhea (possibly bloody), low blood pressure, hallucinations and seizures. Death may occur within 36-72 hours.

3. Sarin gas

Sarin is one of the the most dangerous and deadly nerve gases, which is hundreds of times more toxic than cyanide. Sarin was originally produced as a pesticide, but the clear, odorless gas soon became a powerful chemical weapon.

A person can be poisoned by sarin gas by inhaling or exposing the gas to the eyes and skin. Initially, symptoms may appear such as runny nose and chest tightness, difficulty breathing and nausea.

Then the person loses control over all functions of his body and falls into a coma, convulsions and spasms occur until suffocation occurs.

4. Tetrodotoxin

This deadly poison found in the organs of fish of the genus pufferfish, from which the famous Japanese delicacy "fugu" is prepared. Tetrodotoxin persists in the skin, liver, intestines and other organs, even after the fish has been cooked.

This toxin causes paralysis, convulsions, mental disorder and other symptoms. Death occurs within 6 hours after ingestion of the poison.

Every year, several people are known to die painful deaths from tetrodotoxin poisoning after eating fugu.

5. Potassium cyanide

Potassium cyanide is one of the fastest deadly poisons known to mankind. It may be in the form of crystals and colorless gas with a bitter almond odor. Cyanide can be found in some foods and plants. It is found in cigarettes and is used to make plastic, photographs, extract gold from ore, and kill unwanted insects.

Cyanide was used in ancient times, and in the modern world it was a method of capital punishment. Poisoning can occur through inhalation, ingestion and even touching, causing symptoms such as seizures, respiratory failure and in severe cases death, which may occur in a few minutes. It kills by binding to iron in blood cells, making them unable to carry oxygen.

6. Mercury and mercury poisoning

There are three forms of mercury that can be potentially hazardous: elemental, inorganic and organic. Elemental mercury, which found in mercury thermometers, old fillings and fluorescent lamps, non-toxic on contact, but may be lethal if inhaled.

Inhalation of mercury vapor (the metal quickly turns into a gas at room temperature) affects the lungs and brain, turning off the central nervous system.

Inorganic mercury, which is used to make batteries, can be fatal if ingested and cause kidney damage and other symptoms. Organic mercury found in fish and seafood is usually hazardous over long-term exposure. Symptoms of poisoning may include memory loss, blindness, seizures and others.

7. Strychnine and strychnine poisoning

Strychnine is an odorless, white, bitter crystalline powder that can be acquired by ingestion, inhalation, solution, and intravenous injection.

It is received from the seeds of the chilibukha tree(Strychnos nux-vomica), native to India and southeast Asia. Although it is often used as a pesticide, it can also be found in drugs such as heroin and cocaine.

The degree of strychnine poisoning depends on the amount and route of entry into the body, but a small amount of this poison is enough to cause a serious condition. Symptoms of poisoning include muscle spasms, respiratory failure and even lead to brain death 30 minutes after exposure.

8. Arsenic and arsenic poisoning

Arsenic, which is the 33rd element in the periodic table, has been synonymous with poison since ancient times. It was often used as a poison of choice in political assassinations, as Arsenic poisoning resembled cholera symptoms.

Arsenic is considered a heavy metal with properties similar to those of lead and mercury. In high concentrations it can lead to symptoms of poisoning such as abdominal pain, seizures, coma and death. In small amounts, it can contribute to a number of diseases, including cancer, heart disease and diabetes.

9. Poison Curare

Curare is a mixture of various South American plants that were used for poison arrows. Curare has been used for medicinal purposes in a highly diluted form. The main poison is an alkaloid, which causes paralysis and death, as well as strychnine and hemlock. However, after respiratory paralysis occurs, the heart may continue to beat.

Death from curare is slow and painful, as the victim remains conscious but cannot move or speak. However, if artificial respiration is applied before the poison settles, the person can be saved. Amazon tribes used curare to hunt animals, but the poisoned animal meat was not dangerous to those who consumed it.

10. Batrachotoxin

Fortunately, the chances of encountering this poison are very small. Batrachotoxin, found in the skin of tiny dart frogs, is one of the most powerful neurotoxins in the world.

Frogs themselves do not produce poison; it is accumulated from the foods they consume, mainly small bugs. The most dangerous poison content was found in a species of frogs terrible leaf climber living in Colombia.

One specimen contains enough batrachotoxin to kill two dozen people or several elephants. I affects nerves, especially around the heart, makes breathing difficult and quickly leads to death.

2. Poisonous plants……………………………………………………….7

3. Mushroom poisoning……………………………………………………..9

4. First aid for poisoning……………………………………11

5. Treatment for poisoning……………………………………………13

6. Prevention of poisoning……………………………………………..13

7. Literature……………………………………………………………15

1. Toxic substances and poisoning

Poisons are substances that, when exposed to living organisms, can cause a sharp disruption of normal life, that is, poisoning or death. The concept of poisons is relative. The strength and nature of the effect of toxic substances on the body depend not only on the physical and chemical properties of the substances, but also on the characteristics of the living organism.

The same chemical may or may not have any effect depending on different conditions. There are potent chemicals that are used as medicines in small doses and under certain conditions.

The effect of toxic substances on a living organism, causing a painful condition, is called poisoning Depending on their origin, shipments can be intentional or accidental. The majority of poisonings are accidents, when poison accidentally enters the human body.

Acute poisoning develops as a result of chemical substances of various nature entering the human or animal body in such quantities that can cause disruption of vital functions and create a danger to life. The smaller the amount (dose) of a chemical substance that causes poisoning, the more pronounced its toxicity, that is, toxicity.

Acute poisonings are divided according to the route of entry of the toxic substance into the body. The most common food poisoning results from poison entering the gastrointestinal tract through the mouth, from where it is more or less quickly absorbed into the blood and distributed throughout the body. In addition, it is possible inhalation poisoning due to inhalation of toxic vapors, cutaneous poisoning when poisons enter the body through unprotected skin, cavitary poisoning when a toxic substance enters various body cavities: the nasal cavity, ear, genitals and others. Injection poisoning is also possible due to the introduction of solutions of toxic substances directly into tissues or the bloodstream using a syringe or from the bites of poisonous insects and snakes.

In case of poisoning, toxic substances enter the blood and are carried throughout the body. Some toxic substances have a harmful effect on the entire human body, while others have a selective effect on individual organs and their systems.

Removal of poisons from the body occurs in a variety of ways. Almost all toxic substances or their breakdown products are excreted from the body through the kidneys along with urine. The organs through which poisons are released are often severely damaged by them, which causes serious illness.

Many toxic substances, when affecting the body, cause characteristic changes inherent in them and characteristic clinical signs by which poisoning with a given substance is recognized. However, specific signs of poisoning with a certain substance are not always clearly expressed or are masked by general signs of poisoning. Such general symptoms, which are observed in almost all poisonings, include general malaise, weakness, apathy, loss of appetite, sleep disturbance, headaches, dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting. Often In case of poisoning, acute disorders of cardiovascular activity are observed accompanied by palpitations, increased or slowed pulse, increased or decreased blood pressure; breathing disorders– shortness of breath, feeling of lack of air, increased or slow breathing.

Some poisonings are accompanied mental disorder, agitation, disturbances or loss of consciousness, involuntary urination or defecation. Also observed external changes in the skin and mucous membranes, cyanosis of the face and lips, dry skin or, conversely, increased sweating.

The development of poisoning and its severity, in addition to the amount (dose) of poison entering the body and its chemical composition, are influenced by many conditions. It is known that children and the elderly are more sensitive to certain toxic substances. In women during pregnancy, breastfeeding and during menstruation, sensitivity to various substances is also increased. Sick people, especially those with diseases of the liver, heart, kidneys, etc., are more susceptible to poisoning.

Some people have unusually increased individual sensitivity to various chemicals or drugs (allergies). In such cases, a severe general allergic reaction develops from a small amount of this substance, sometimes ending in death.

At the same time, there are known facts of individual resistance to obviously toxic substances due to addiction to them, for example, to nicotine and other drugs of plant origin.

There are many chemicals that cause acute poisoning. These include, for example, drugs used to treat diseases, but in high doses they have toxic properties; various animal toxins and plant poisons used by humans to prepare medicines and many other substances.

All these numerous chemical substances exhibit their toxic effects on the body in various ways, according to which they are divided into irritants, cauterizing, vesicants, asphyxiants, hypnotics, convulsants and other poisons. Moreover, most of them, regardless of the dose and route of entry into the body, have so-called selective toxicity, that is, the ability to affect strictly defined cells and tissue structures, without affecting others with which they are in direct contact. According to the principle of selective toxicity, blood poisons are isolated that act primarily on blood cells (carbon monoxide, saltpeter, and others); nervous, or neurotoxic, poisons that affect cells of the central and peripheral nervous system (alcohol, drugs, etc.); kidney and liver poisons that disrupt the functions of these organs (some fungal toxins and others); cardiac poisons, the influence of which disrupts the functioning of the heart muscle (some plant poisons from the group of alkaloids); gastrointestinal poisons that affect the stomach and intestines, respectively.

Acute poisoning by poisonous plants are a common type of food intoxication with a number of characteristic features. The causes of acute poisoning by plant poisons can be self-medication - self-ingestion of tinctures and herbal decoctions without consulting a doctor or on the recommendations of persons without medical education.

Among the painful phenomena that occur after ingestion of poisonous plants, the main place is often occupied by disorders of the gastrointestinal tract.

The active toxic principle of poisonous plants are various chemical compounds, which belong mainly to the class of alkaloids, glycosides, as well as some essential oils and organic acids (hydrocyanic, oxalic).

Alkaloids are complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Their salts quickly dissolve in water and are absorbed in the stomach or intestines.

The structural uniqueness of glycosides lies in the fact that they easily break down into their constituent carbohydrate (sugar) part and several other toxic substances.

Symptoms of the lesion human exposure to plant poisons depend on their predominant effect on certain organs and systems of the body (selective toxicity). In case of poisoning by many plants, symptoms of damage to the nervous system come to the fore. The nature of the lesion may vary. In some cases, poisonous plant substances stimulate the activity of the central parts of the nervous system, in others, on the contrary, they quickly inhibit them or completely paralyze them. Depending on this, in the first case, signs of increased arousal predominate in the picture of poisoning, manifested in the form of increased arousal, cramps in the arms and legs, manic disorder of consciousness, deceptive sensations, skin itching, and visions of small insects. At the same time, the pupils of the eyes noticeably dilate, the skin becomes dry and hot, swallowing is disturbed, the pulse and breathing become more frequent. Such symptoms can be in case of poisoning with belladonna, dope, henbane, wormwood, milestone, aconite and other plant poisons of nervous action. In the second case of poisoning with such poisons, signs of inhibition of nervous activity predominate in the form of a decrease in skin sensitivity, drowsiness, depressed mood, difficulty in voluntary movements to a state of complete immobility and loss of consciousness. At the same time, the pulse and breathing slow down, the skin becomes damp and cold. Similar symptoms are observed in case of poisoning with poppy, horsetail, omega spotted, pikulnik and others.

In severe poisoning, excitation of the nervous system is often only the first stage of the action of the poison, followed, sometimes very quickly, by severe inhibition and paralysis of its activity. The initial effect on the nervous system is usually complicated by disorders of other organs, primarily the heart and respiratory organs, which can lead to the development of insufficiency of their function and death of patients.

A significant number of poisonous plants have a strong effect on the mucous membrane of the digestive tract and cause severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. As a result of this, due to rapid dehydration of the body, severe weakness, shortness of breath, and weakened cardiac activity may develop. This group includes plants containing saponin (euphorbia, sprouted potatoes, nightshade), mustard and others.

Who doesn’t remember this wonderful Pushkin poem? The forces of nature are formidable and mysterious, but man steals them... True, in the time of Pushkin the composition of the poison contained in the anchar was not yet known and its effect had not been studied. Now toxicologists know that the poisonous principle of the Javanese anchar is antiarin is a substance of steroid nature (close in chemical structure to digitalis, strophanthin and other potent cardiac drugs). The juice of anchara and other related plants has long been used as an arrow poison in East Asia. On the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Indonesia, where anchar juice became widespread, they knew that only 90 grams of it was enough for 100 deadly arrows. If you hit a monkey with one such arrow, it will fall from the tree dead in two to three minutes. Antiarin and strophanthin have an exceptionally strong effect on the heart muscle - this is their particular danger. If the heart has stopped and two or three minutes have passed, then it is almost impossible to restore its contractions. It is interesting that the discovery of the effect of strophanthin on the heart was led to... accidental contamination of a toothbrush with African arrow poison (this happened during one of Livingston's expeditions).

The cardiac poisons digitoxin and convallotoxin, which are similar in action, are contained in digitalis and lily of the valley, which serve as sources for medicinal cardiac glucosides. But not only anchar or foxglove - the plant world is fraught with an unlimited number of poisons. A simple listing of the most poisonous plants would take several pages. Here, in addition to antiarin, we will talk about only a few more plant poisons that are of particular interest both historically and toxicologically. Many of them are now obtained not only from plants, but also synthetically.

Atropa cuts the thread of life

Atropine known since ancient times. Today it is of great use in medicine, but in the distant past it was better known as a poison. Atropine is found in such widespread plants as belladonna and henbane. In addition, atropine is found in mandrake, which has long enjoyed the reputation of being an unsurpassed medicine and poison. The word atropine comes from the Latin name of the belladonna plant - atropa belladonna. Atropa is the name of one of the three mythological Parks (goddesses of fate). The French sculptor Debe gave the Parks images of young maidens: Clopho, crowned with fruits, holds a spindle and the thread of human life, which the inexorable Atropa, with branches of a gloomy, mournful cypress on her head, is about to cut, and Lachesis takes a ball from the urn to inscribe on it everything that will happen in the life of a mortal. (Interestingly, one of the modern atropine-like drugs was named lachesine). History holds many secrets related to the use of atropine for criminal purposes. Fiction also talks about this: Shakespeare, describing the murder of Hamlet’s father, turns to henbane, the active principle of which is atropine. The Phantom speaks about this, addressing the Prince of Denmark:

"...When I was sleeping in the garden in my afternoon, your uncle crept into my corner with the cursed henbane juice in a flask and poured an infusion into the narthex of my ears, whose action is in such discord with the blood..."

Henbane poisoning occurs with symptoms of mental agitation (hence the saying “henbane has eaten too much”). But it is related to atropine in chemical structure scopolamine, on the contrary, has a calming effect. In this regard, plants containing scopolamine (datura, mandrake) were previously used as narcotic and sleeping pills.

Atropine and scopolamine are now widely used in medicine to treat a number of diseases.

Sleeping Poppy, is the name of a plant whose juice contains opium. Opium is an ancient sedative and hypnotic; The juice obtained from unripe poppy pods was known among the Greeks as a good soporific. According to Pliny, it was also widely used as a drug for "complete deliverance from all suffering and disease." This sleeping pill gradually migrated to the East as a drug. Since then, the contagion of opium smoking has brought huge profits to the bosses of the black market. For many centuries, the secrets of the sleeping pills poppy remained unsolved. But in 1803, 20-year-old Serturner, being at that time an apprentice pharmacist in Paderborn, obtained a white crystalline powder from opium. The study of its effects on animals began. It turned out that the drug causes in dogs not only the drowsiness characteristic of opium, but also immunity to pain. Having made a series of experiments on himself, Serturner determined the dose required to obtain such an effect. He named his drug after the Greek god of sleep. morphine.

Now morphine as an analgesic is needed relatively rarely, since its substitutes have recently been obtained. The action of the latter does not lead to the development morphinism and therefore their use is safer.

Curare

Curare is one of the poisons that played an exceptional role in the development of experimental toxicology, so it should be discussed in more detail. Its name comes from the Indian word "uirari" ("uira" - bird, and "eor" - to kill). The use of arrows coated with curare in hunting and war began in South America. Initially, the use of curare was limited to the northern region of the river basin. Amazon, and then, after the discovery of America, began to spread to the west and south. The most potent types of curare were produced in the north, along the entire length of the Solemoe River (the name of which means “poison”). Interestingly, this area is still a kind of center for obtaining curare. In the city of Iquitos, east of Solemwe, to this day there is an exchange of poisons between the Indians and the rest of the population. One might have expected that with the advent of firearms among the Indians, curare would lose its importance. However, this did not happen. A blowgun loaded with a curare arrow continues to this day to be the Indians’ favorite weapon for hunting, as it allows them to act covertly and silently. Due to the mysterious ritual involved in making the poison, identifying the plants used to prepare it required extensive observation. It is now known that the active principles that are part of various varieties of curare are extracted from strychnos and chondrodendron plants. The natives, having crushed the shoots of these plants, boil them, evaporating the juice and determining its readiness by the degree of bitterness. The juice of a new plant is added to the condensed boiling liquid and thereby turns the extract into a thick syrup. “It is difficult to imagine how experience and intuition led seemingly such primitive tribes to this extremely significant discovery,” writes the prominent modern Italian pharmacologist Bove.

The active principle of curare, tubocurarine, was isolated in 1820, but it took almost a century to establish its formula (see Fig. 1). Based on Beauvais' research, the first synthetic curare, gallamine, was obtained. In the USSR, diplacin and paramion were proposed. Curare-like drugs have now become necessary in the practice of surgical anesthesia. The fact is that painkillers “relieve” only sensitivity to pain, without causing the necessary relaxation of the muscles. The simultaneous use of painkillers and muscle relaxants completely solves the problem of surgical anesthesia. That is why Bove entitled his article for the Soviet collection “Science and Humanity” (1964) “The blessed poison of curare.” Beneficial in clinical use under strict medical supervision and... deadly in all other cases of life! After all, relaxation and paralysis of the respiratory muscles (diaphragm, intercostal muscles) inevitably lead to respiratory arrest and death. An animal struck by an arrow with curare falls and lies helpless, completely immobilized, until paralysis of the respiratory muscles occurs. The classical experiments of C. Bernard, which we will discuss below, convinced that the effect of curare is “peripheral”: this poison paralyzes the muscles without affecting the brain.

The healing properties of curare, due to its great danger, could not be used for a long time: doctors were simply afraid to use it. And so doctor Smith from the University of Utah decided to conduct an experiment on himself - a successful experiment that, without exaggeration, can be called heroic. Subsequently, he said that after the injection of poison, the throat muscles were first paralyzed. He could no longer swallow and was choking on his own saliva. Then the muscles of the limbs became immobilized: it was impossible to move either an arm or a leg. Then the worst thing happened: paralysis affected the respiratory muscles, but the heart and brain continued to work. At this point the experiment was interrupted. And not without reason... Smith later said: “I felt as if I was buried alive.”

Socrates Cup

Action coniine- an alkaloid contained in the plant hemlock or omega spotted (Latin name - conium), reminiscent of the action of curare. In addition, it has a narcotic effect; It also has toxic manifestations characteristic of nicotine. Hemlock is similar to garden parsley, horseradish, and parsnips (Fig. 2). Distributed throughout the European part of the USSR, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Poisoning can occur if the roots of the plant are accidentally consumed instead of horseradish.

Spotted hemlock went down in history as the poison that killed the great ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. (According to other sources, Socrates died from omega swamp or poisonous milestone containing cicutotoxin.) His student Plato describes the death of Socrates very plausibly: “When Socrates saw the prison servant, he asked him: well, dear friend, what should I do with this cup? He answered: you must only drink it, then walk back and forth until your thighs become heavy, and then lie down, and then the poison will continue its effect... Socrates emptied the cup very cheerfully and without anger... He walked back and forth, and when he noticed that his thighs were heavy, he lay down straight on his back, as the prison servant told him.”

Centuries passed before scientists tackled the Socratic Cup in the 19th century. After experiments on animals, it was necessary to test its effect on humans. But how to do that? Three Viennese medical students volunteered to help science, each of whom took the poisonous principle of hemlock (coniine) in an amount of 0.003 to 0.08 g. They compiled a detailed description of the action of coniine, much more accurately than Plato did. In particular, students experience such symptoms of poisoning as drowsiness, depression (as with a hangover), deterioration of vision and hearing, drooling, dulling of the sense of touch (the skin became “fluffy” and “goosebumps were running all over it”). Due to the ensuing weakness, the young people could barely keep their heads straight. They moved their arms with great difficulty, their gait became shaky and uncertain, and even the next day their legs trembled when walking... It became obvious that coniine has a multifaceted effect: it causes muscle paralysis and drowsiness, that is, it somehow combines effects of curare and narcotic drugs, complementing them with peculiar sensitivity disorders. This “auto-experiment” was only a weak semblance of the poisoning of Socrates. One can imagine how painful his death was: after all, he drank his cup to the bottom...

"Blue Buttercup"

"Blue buttercup" is better known by its Latin name aconite (see Fig. 3). The last king of Pergamin was Attalus III (Philometr), who lived in the 2nd century. BC e., in his garden he cultivated various poisonous plants, but he paid special attention to aconite (in ancient times it was called the poison of Cerberus). Just like an arrow carrying strophanthin, aconite is capable of instantly hitting an elephant. Yes, this is not surprising if you keep in mind that its lethal dose is only a few milligrams! The poisonous principle of the “blue buttercup” (also called the fighter) is aconitine, which has a burning taste. It is found mainly in the tubers of the plant, where it is extracted from. Grows in forests and ravines. Distributed in the European part of the USSR, Siberia and the Far East. Widely used in homeopathy in the form of tincture. The concentration of aconite in the tincture is 0.05% (this means that 1 cm 3 of tincture contains 0.5 mg of aconite). This dose is approximately 10 times less than the toxic dose. (This shows that other homeopathic remedies are not so innocent!). In modern scientific medicine, aconite is not used.

Rice. 3. "Blue Buttercup" (wolfsbane)

Aconitine is a universal “nerve” poison. It affects the motor, sensory and autonomic nerves, and their excitation is replaced by paralysis. In addition, aconitine has a strong effect on the central nervous system, leading to respiratory arrest.

"The Gift" by Jean Nicot

In the 16th century The French envoy in Lisbon, Jean Nicot, a great lover and collector of plants, was sent unknown seeds from America. It was tobacco. Since then, the cultivation, sniffing and smoking of tobacco began in Europe. In the 17th century, it became so widespread that in some countries the plant itself was “outlawed.” Thus, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not allow soldiers to smoke tobacco under pain of exile to Siberia; Pope Urban VIII forbade clergy and laity from chewing and smoking tobacco during worship, so that “they would not stain church utensils with spittle and poison the air with tobacco smoke.” It is well known how widespread smoking is. It’s just difficult to understand what considerations make people revel in the “gift of Jean Nicot” and chronically poison their bodies with nicotine? Most of all, this hobby fits the category of bad habits. It does not hurt to recall that the active principle of tobacco leaves belongs to very strong poisons. A few hundredths of a gram (about 1 drop) of pure nicotine causes severe poisoning in an unaccustomed person. (A case is described when one strong subject smoked 40 cigarettes and 14 cigars within 12 hours and died from nicotine poisoning). At one time, two doctors - Dvorak and Heinrich, who worked for the Viennese pharmacologist Shroff, performed a scientific experiment on themselves, taking 4.5 mg of pure nicotine. Both developed severe poisoning. Among the variety of symptoms, the most serious were the convulsions that appeared at the beginning of the second hour. They also covered the respiratory muscles; breathing became difficult: each exhalation consisted of a series of short convulsive tremors. The subjects also felt unwell the next day. After the experience, both doctors acquired an aversion not only to smoking, but even to the smell of tobacco.

From "judicial" beans to modern OBs

In Calabar (Nigeria), the poisonous effect of the beans of the climbing plant Physostigma venosum (somewhat reminiscent of our beans in appearance) has been known since ancient times. Its pods contain 2-3 seeds containing an extremely poisonous alkaloid physostigmine (eserine). These beans served in Calabar as a means of testing people accused of witchcraft. In addition, duels were in fashion there, in which opponents divided an equal number of beans among themselves. The seeds were also used for the purpose of holding court (hence the name “judicial beans”): the accused was publicly offered to eat a certain amount of them. If he vomited, the person was acquitted; if he died, then his condemnation was considered fair. This naive and cruel method of legal proceedings was nevertheless based on certain elements of a psychological order. The fact is that a person who considered himself innocent ate beans confidently and quickly, as a result of which vomiting began. The culprit ate the beans carefully and slowly; this most often led to the fact that he did not vomit, the eserine was absorbed and death occurred.

According to the first reports of the effects of Calabar beans, the symptoms of eserine poisoning consist of gradually increasing paralysis of the voluntary muscles. "The poisoned person looks blankly, the muscles cease to obey him, he staggers on his feet as if drunk. Breathing becomes difficult, the pulse is weak and rare, the body cools and becomes covered with sweat; finally, complete relaxation and death sets in - apparently without suffering. If detected diarrhea and vomiting, then life is saved in most cases." This description, given in the first scientific manual on toxicology in Russian (E. Pelikan, 1878), quite colorfully characterizes eserine poisoning. Physostigmine did not find widespread use in medicine, but it was destined to play an outstanding role in the development of the science of drugs and poisons. Second decade of the 20th century. was marked by an important discovery: the enzyme cholinesterase, which is of exceptional importance for all nervous activity, was discovered in the body. It was found that physostigmine blocks this enzyme, and this “disarms” it, leading to disruption of the normal course of nervous processes, as a result of which poisoning occurs. Such poisons were called anticholinesterase substances, and the discovery itself was used to obtain synthetic substitutes for physostigmine. One by one, anticholinesterase poisons were discovered, which are now the most toxic of all known synthetic compounds. We are talking about organophosphorus agents, the mechanism of action of which is similar to the action of physostigmine.

As mentioned above, the number of poisonous plants is extremely large, and we have mentioned here only a small part of what is the content of thick manuals and reference books. Our task is not to give a systematic presentation of data on plant poisons, but to show, using several examples, the truly amazing variety of properties that plants contain. Some of them act primarily on the peripheral parts of the nervous system, others selectively affect the functions of the brain, others “wound” the heart, and the action of others is diverse, covering various organs and systems. If we continued to describe poisons of plant origin, we would probably write about strychnine, colchicine, emetine ("emetic root"), ricin (from castor beans), cocaine, santonin, quinine, veratrine (hebore) and many other substances. Unraveling the secrets of nature, man isolated them from a wide variety of plants for use in medicinal medicine. However, there is no need to clutter the presentation with this data. Having understood what inexhaustible reserves of physiologically active compounds are hidden in the plant world, we must hasten to describe the no less extensive kingdom of fungi, microbes and animals. In the process of evolution and the centuries-long struggle for existence, they have developed even more toxic principles that pose a threat to humans.

Dangerously similar

Toxic substances are found in some mushrooms, such as fly agaric and toadstool. Was isolated from fly agaric muscarine, which turned out to be, unlike many plant poisons, a substance of a fairly simple structure. Despite the name, inherited from the mushroom itself ("muska" in Greek for fly), muscarine is safe for insects. Along with muscarine, mushrooms contain protein substances (toxalbumins) that kill flies. Surprisingly, the fly agaric also contains an atropine-like substance, which, as we will see below, is the complete antipode of muscarine in its physiological action. The role of such a symbiosis still remains a mystery. Another comparison is no less interesting: muscarine in its structure almost coincides with acetylcholine, a substance produced in the body of humans and animals and which performs an important function - the transmission of nervous excitation. Take a look at the two structural formulas (see page 21). This similarity is where the danger of mushroom poisoning lies. When muscarine enters the body, it interacts with the same specific systems (they are called cholinergic), which were previously the object of action only by acetylcholine. This invasion turns out to be lengthy and brutal. The result is overexcitation of the entire system and a sharp disruption of the normal course of nervous processes, leading to poisoning. But this overexcitation is relatively easy to eliminate. As soon as atropine is administered to the patient, the poisoning will be cured. What happened? Atropine's structure is partly reminiscent of acetylcholine and thanks to this it “hurries” to connect with “cholinergic” systems. However, the atropine molecule is more bulky and therefore it seems to cover (block) the active surface of the nerve receptor. By doing this, she protects him from the attacks of muscarine.

Muscarine is a strong poison. By stimulating the autonomic part of the nervous system (in charge of regulating cardiac activity, digestion, sweating, smooth muscles of the bronchi, blood vessels and intestines), it causes a slowing of the heartbeat, a drop in blood pressure, bronchospasm (hence suffocation) and other characteristic symptoms. The lethal dose of muscarine for humans is 3-5 mg, which corresponds to 3-4 fly agarics.

There are indications that the drink, previously prepared from fly agaric mushrooms in the north, caused a kind of dope. Since muscarine does not have such an effect, it is attributed to the presence of other toxic substances in the mushroom, in particular atropine-like ones. Psilocybin, a poison found in many types of Mexican mushrooms, has a much more pronounced effect on the psyche. These mushrooms have long been used by Mexicans and Indians as an aphrodisiac.

Antonov fire

It is now well known that ergot contains several toxic substances, one of which causes convulsions, and the other a sharp and prolonged spasm of the blood vessels of the extremities, which leads to severe disruption of the trophism (nutrition) of the skin and muscles in the form of gangrene.

Ergot poisoning is now rare, since flour, before entering the bakery, undergoes a thorough hygienic examination and, at the slightest suspicion of containing fungus, is not allowed into food.

Ergot turned out to be an exceptionally rich source for obtaining biologically active substances. This is due to the fact that the structural basis of all alkaloids contained in it is the so-called lysergic acid, which has a complex and unique structure. Minor changes in its structure produce compounds that differ significantly in their properties from ergot. This is how lysergic acid diethylamide was obtained, now widely known under the short name LSD, a drug that has the ability to cause hallucinations in humans in negligible doses. But more on that later.

Poisonous microbes

Some microorganisms produce extremely toxic substances. Thus, the poison of the botulinus bacillus (sausage poison) causes death in humans at a dose of 0.5 mg. It is easy to calculate that 1 g of this neurotoxin can kill 2000 people! However, this is not the limit: the toxins of some types (strains) of the poisonous bacillus are even more dangerous. Thus, the lethal dose of bacillus A neurotoxin is about 0.003 mg (3 micrograms). Fortunately, modern medicine has a reliable remedy for botulism - a very effective anti-botulism serum. In addition to the botulinus bacillus, several other types of microorganisms are known that produce toxins dangerous to humans. These include tetanus bacillus, some types of staphylococci and salmonella (microbes that cause intestinal damage), etc.

Seed propagation in the garden strawberries we are used to, unfortunately, leads to the appearance of less productive plants and weaker bushes. But another type of these sweet berries, alpine strawberries, can be successfully grown from seeds. Let's learn about the main advantages and disadvantages of this crop, consider the main varieties and features of agricultural technology. The information presented in this article will help you decide whether it is worth allocating a place for it in the berry garden.

Often, when we see a beautiful flower, we instinctively bend down to smell its fragrance. All fragrant flowers can be divided into two large groups: nocturnal (pollinated by moths) and daytime, whose pollinators are mainly bees. Both groups of plants are important for the florist and designer, because we often walk around the garden during the day and relax in our favorite corners when evening comes. We are never overwhelmed by the scent of our favorite fragrant flowers.

Many gardeners consider pumpkin to be the queen of garden beds. And not only because of its size, variety of shapes and colors, but also for its excellent taste, healthy qualities and rich harvest. Pumpkin contains a large amount of carotene, iron, various vitamins and minerals. Thanks to the possibility of long-term storage, this vegetable supports our health all year round. If you decide to plant a pumpkin on your plot, you will be interested in learning how to get the largest possible harvest.

Scotch eggs are amazing! Try to cook this dish at home, there is nothing difficult to prepare. Scotch eggs are a hard-boiled egg wrapped in minced meat, breaded in flour, egg and breadcrumbs and deep-fried. For frying, you will need a frying pan with a high side, and if you have a deep fryer, then that’s just great - even less hassle. You will also need oil for frying so as not to smoke in the kitchen. Choose farm eggs for this recipe.

One of the most amazing large-flowered tubs of Dominican Cubanola fully justifies its status as a tropical miracle. Warm-loving, slow-growing, with huge and in many ways unique bells of flowers, Cubanola is a fragrant star with a complex character. It requires special conditions in the rooms. But for those who are looking for exclusive plants for their interior, a better (and more chocolatey) candidate for the role of indoor giant cannot be found.

Chickpea Curry with Meat is a hearty hot dish for lunch or dinner inspired by Indian cuisine. This curry is quick to prepare but requires some prep. The chickpeas must first be soaked in plenty of cold water for several hours, preferably overnight; the water can be changed several times. It is also better to leave the meat in the marinade overnight so that it turns out juicy and tender. Then you should boil the chickpeas until tender and then prepare the curry according to the recipe.

Rhubarb cannot be found in every garden plot. It's a pity. This plant is a storehouse of vitamins and can be widely used in cooking. What is not prepared from rhubarb: soups and cabbage soup, salads, delicious jam, kvass, compotes and juices, candied fruits and marmalade, and even wine. But that's not all! The large green or red rosette of leaves of the plant, reminiscent of burdock, acts as a beautiful background for annuals. It is not surprising that rhubarb can also be seen in flower beds.

Today, experiments with non-banal combinations and non-standard colors in the garden are in trend. For example, plants with black inflorescences have become very fashionable. All black flowers are original and specific, and it is important for them to be able to select suitable partners and a position. Therefore, this article will not only introduce you to an assortment of plants with slate-black inflorescences, but will also teach you the intricacies of using such mystical plants in garden design.

3 delicious sandwiches - a cucumber sandwich, a chicken sandwich, a cabbage and meat sandwich - a great idea for a quick snack or for an outdoor picnic. Just fresh vegetables, juicy chicken and cream cheese and a little seasoning. There are no onions in these sandwiches; if you wish, you can add onions marinated in balsamic vinegar to any of the sandwiches; this will not spoil the taste. Having quickly prepared snacks, all that remains is to pack a picnic basket and head to the nearest green lawn.

Depending on the varietal group, the age of seedlings suitable for planting in open ground is: for early tomatoes - 45-50 days, average ripening - 55-60 and late ripening - at least 70 days. When planting tomato seedlings at a younger age, the period of its adaptation to new conditions is significantly extended. But success in obtaining a high-quality tomato harvest also depends on carefully following the basic rules for planting seedlings in open ground.

Unpretentious “background” plants of sansevieria do not seem boring to those who value minimalism. They are better suited than other indoor decorative foliage stars for collections that require minimal care. Stable decorativeness and extreme hardiness in only one species of sansevieria are also combined with compactness and very rapid growth - rosette sansevieria Hana. The squat rosettes of their tough leaves create striking clusters and patterns.

One of the brightest months of the garden calendar pleasantly surprises with the balanced distribution of favorable and unfavorable days for working with plants according to the lunar calendar. Vegetable gardening in June can be done throughout the entire month, while the unfavorable periods are very short and still allow you to do useful work. There will be optimal days for sowing and planting, for pruning, for a pond, and even for construction work.

Meat with mushrooms in a frying pan is an inexpensive hot dish that is suitable for a regular lunch and for a holiday menu. Pork will cook quickly, veal and chicken too, so this is the preferred meat for the recipe. Mushrooms - fresh champignons, in my opinion, are the best choice for homemade stew. Forest gold - boletus mushrooms, boletus and other delicacies is best prepared for the winter. Boiled rice or mashed potatoes are ideal as a side dish.

I love ornamental shrubs, especially unpretentious ones and with interesting, non-trivial foliage colors. I have various Japanese spirea, Thunberg barberries, black elderberry... And there is one special shrub, which I will talk about in this article - viburnum leaf. To fulfill my dream of a low-maintenance garden, it is perhaps ideal. At the same time, it is capable of greatly diversifying the picture in the garden, from spring to autumn.

Plant poisons

MONSKING, or WRESTLER. Belongs to the genus of herbaceous perennial plants of the ranunculaceae family. It was first used for medical purposes in the 18th century by the Austrian physician Sterck. Today, aconite is used in homeopathy for pneumonia, fever and other pathological conditions. The plant is poisonous. If poisoning is noticed in a timely manner, the patient should be given an emetic. Symptoms of poisoning are pain and burning in the mouth and tongue, increased sweating, frequent urge to urinate, tachycardia, dilated pupils, darkening of the eyes, headache, nausea. As intoxication progresses, vomiting, stomach cramps, convulsions and delirium appear, then respiratory arrest occurs. If help is not provided in a timely manner, poisoning ends in death. The toxic effect of the plant is associated with the alkaloid it contains, aconitine, which causes convulsions and respiratory arrest.

BELLADONNA, or BELLADONNA. Plant of the nightshade family. In the past, women would put belladonna in their eyes to make them shine and dilate their pupils. In medicine, belladonna is used as an antispasmodic. The leaves of the plant are used as the starting product for making medicine. Preparations based on belladonna prevent the stimulating effect of acetylcholine (a substance involved in the transmission of nervous excitation in the central nervous system, the endings of parasympathetic and motor nerves, autonomic nodes), reduce the secretion of the salivary, lacrimal, sweat and bronchial glands. Taking such medications reduces the tone of the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract and gallbladder ducts, dilates the pupils, prevents the outflow of intraocular fluid, and increases intraocular pressure. Preparations based on belladonna are prescribed for gastric and duodenal ulcers, cholelithiasis, bradycardia, hemorrhoids and other diseases. Such drugs are contraindicated in case of hypersensitivity to their components, glaucoma, prostate hypertrophy. Taking drugs based on belladonna may be accompanied by psychomotor agitation, photophobia, intestinal atony, rapid heartbeat, urinary retention, and dry mouth. With mild belladonna poisoning, difficulty breathing and speech, tachycardia, hoarseness, dilated pupils, visual hallucinations, and delirium are observed. Severe poisoning is accompanied by convulsions, a sharp increase in body temperature, shortness of breath, cyanosis of the mucous membranes, and a sharp decrease in blood pressure. Death occurs as a result of paralysis of the respiratory center and vascular insufficiency.

BLACK HEBREW (MAD GRASS, RAB). Plant of the nightshade family. The leaves and seeds of the plant are used in pharmaceuticals to treat cramps, toothache, and cough. Alkaloids contained in henbane have an antispasmodic effect on smooth muscles, increase intraocular pressure, promote pupil dilation, cause paralysis of accommodation and tachycardia, and affect the central nervous system. In combination with mandrake, belladonna and datura, henbane is used as an analgesic with a psychoactive effect, manifested in euphoria and visual hallucinations. Even small doses of henbane are toxic. The plant is especially dangerous for children, who may be attracted by its bright appearance. Therefore, henbane is destroyed in populated areas. Symptoms of henbane poisoning include dilated pupils, dry mouth, hoarseness, rapid heartbeat, extreme thirst, and headache. In case of untimely first aid, the victim develops a coma.

DEATH CAP. A mushroom from the genus of fly agarics, the most poisonous mushrooms. It contains the alkaloids phalloidin, phallin and amanitin. The lethal dose of amanitin is 0.1 mg/kg. Mushroom pickers may confuse toadstool with edible mushrooms, such as champignons and green russula. Poisoning is possible if you mistakenly eat a poisonous mushroom. Heat treatment does not reduce the toxic properties of toadstool. For poisoning, it is enough to eat 25–30 g of mushroom. Characteristic signs of poisoning are convulsions and jaw clenching. A few hours after the onset of intoxication, the patient experiences vomiting, intestinal colic, muscle pain, severe thirst, and diarrhea (sometimes mixed with blood). An enlarged liver is also possible. The pulse gradually weakens and becomes thread-like. Death occurs as a result of acute hepatitis and heart failure. The danger of poisoning with toadstool is that the symptoms of intoxication do not appear immediately. The first signs may appear within 6–24 hours as vital organs are damaged.

SPECKED HEMMON, or SPOTTED HELMIC. A perennial plant of the Umbelliferae family with an unpleasant odor. Externally, it resembles wild carrots, since both plants have a tap root. The plant is poisonous. All its parts contain the alkaloid coniine, which paralyzes the respiratory muscles. In medicine, hemlock is used as an external remedy. When poisoned by the plant, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea appear, the pupils dilate, the limbs become cold and immobilized, and breathing becomes difficult. First aid for poisoning is gastric lavage and a salt laxative. Particular attention should be paid to breathing and, if necessary, artificial respiration should be performed. Diuretics are indicated to quickly remove poison from the body. In toxic doses, the plant causes paralysis. In ancient times it was used as a nerve poison.

HEMP. Plant of the hemp family. It contains narcotic substances - cannabinoids - and is used as a starting material for the preparation of marijuana and hashish. The largest part of the narcotic substances is found in the resin released from the flowers of female plants. Resin is necessary to retain moisture and protect the flower from high temperatures during the propagation period. The production and sale of drugs containing cannabis is prohibited in most countries of the world. The use of drugs containing cannabis leads to depression of the central nervous system. First, nervous excitement, tinnitus, dilated pupils, a state of euphoria, laughter, visual hallucinations are observed. The second phase of poisoning is characterized by a depressed mood, turning into a long and deep sleep with a decrease in body temperature and a slowing of the pulse. In the case of ingestion of cannabis, the patient is given a gastric lavage, with increased nervous excitement - an injection of a 2.5% solution of chlorpromazine intramuscularly. Cannabinoids relieve symptoms of AIDS and advanced cancer. The last months of life of such patients are accompanied by severe pain, loss of appetite and exhaustion. Cannabinoids increase appetite and relieve pain, so their use in this category of patients may be beneficial.

FALSE OPINION, or FALSE OPINION. Belongs to a group of poisonous mushrooms similar to honey mushrooms. The cap of false mushrooms is convex, with a bump in the center, yellowish in color, the flesh is light yellow. The mushroom has a bitter taste. It grows, as a rule, on the stumps of deciduous trees or next to them, sometimes on the trunks of living trees. False honey fungus can be found from late June to September. From August to mid-October, another type of false honey fungus grows more often - with a brick-red cap. The most dangerous representative of the group is the false honey fungus. All of these mushrooms cause irritation of the digestive tract, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Poisoning with false honey mushrooms in most cases occurs in a mild form. It must be taken into account that poisoning can also occur when edible mushrooms are consumed. The reason is improper cooking. Some mushrooms can only be pickled; they cannot be eaten boiled or fried. Another reason for poisoning with edible mushrooms is the consumption of old specimens in which decomposition processes have already begun. The poisonous effect of false mushrooms is associated with the content of the poisons phalloidin and maniin in them.

OPIUM (HYPOTICS) MAC. Herbaceous plant of the poppy family. It grows in China, India, Afghanistan, Asia Minor and Central Asia. From the unripe capsules of the plant, opium is obtained, which is used to make medical and narcotic drugs. Poppy seeds are used to make technical oil and are also added to baked goods. The narcotic substance, made from seeds and other parts of the poppy, is highly toxic. Its constant use leads to the formation of persistent drug addiction. As a result of opium use, irreversible changes occur in the central nervous system. Poppy seeds contain glycosides that cause visual and auditory hallucinations or deep sleep. An overdose of the drug is fatal. This type of drug addiction is difficult to treat.

HYDROGENIC ACID, or HYDROGEN CYANIDE. Colorless liquid with the smell of bitter almonds. It is obtained from fruit seeds (peaches, apricots, plums, etc.), as well as chemically. Hydrocyanic acid is a highly toxic substance. When it enters the body, it causes tissue hypoxia. When inhaling vapors of a highly concentrated substance, a scratching sensation in the throat, headache, chest pain, nausea, and vomiting occur. As the symptoms of poisoning increase, the pulse rate decreases, convulsions begin, loss of coordination and then consciousness occurs. Ingestion of poison causes clonic-toxic convulsions, instant loss of consciousness, and paralysis of the respiratory center. Death usually occurs within a few minutes. For hydrocyanic acid poisoning, 2 groups of antidotes are used. The first group of substances, interacting with hydrocyanic acid, forms non-toxic products. It includes drugs such as colloidal sulfur, polythionates, aldehydes, ketones, etc. The second group of antidotes promotes the formation of methemoglobin in the blood. This includes methylene blue, salts and esters of nitrous acid.

CHICUTA (POISONOUS VEKH, CAT PARISH, MUTNIK). A poisonous plant common in Europe. It has a pleasant smell, reminiscent of carrots. The largest amount of toxic substances is contained in the rhizomes of the plant. 100–200 g of rhizomes is enough to kill a cow, 50 g is fatal to a sheep. The seeds and rhizomes of the poisonous plant are used to prepare hemlock oil (cicutol). The root resin contains cicutoxin. If it is taken orally, headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and foam at the mouth occur. The victim's pupils dilate and epileptic seizures begin, which can result in paralysis or death. First aid for poisoning is gastric lavage with an activated carbon solution. In folk medicine, ointments and tinctures are made from hemlock rhizomes to treat rheumatism, gout and some skin diseases. The plant is also used in homeopathy. Hemlock is considered the most powerful plant poison. Its rhizome is most poisonous in late autumn and early spring. The plant retains its toxic properties even when exposed to high temperatures and during long-term storage. The largest percentage of cases of animal poisoning by hemlock occurs in the spring.