It is not a basic unit of language. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

Units of language and their main characteristics.

Language levels are located in relation to each other according to the principle of ascending or descending complexity of language units. The essence of this phenomenon is the preservation of the properties and characteristics of lower-level units in a higher-level system, but in a more perfect form. Thus, the relations between the levels of the language system are not reducible to a simple hierarchy - subordination or inclusion. That's why language system fair to call system of systems.

Let's consider language units from the point of view segmentation speech flow. In this case, a unit of language is understood as something that, expressing meaning, materializes in speech segments and their features. Since the speech implementation of language units is characterized by a fairly wide range variability, then the mental one is applied to the selected speech segments identification operation, which consists in the fact that formally different speech segments are recognized as the material embodiment of the same unit of language. The basis for this is community expressed in varying units values or performed by them functions.

The beginning of segmentation of a speech stream is the identification of communicative units in it - statements, or phrases. In the language system it corresponds to syntax or syntactic model, representing the syntactic level of the language. The next stage of segmentation is the division of statements into word forms, which combine several heterogeneous functions (nominative, derivational and relative), therefore the identification operation is carried out separately in each direction.

A class of word forms, characterized by root and affixal morphemes of equal meaning, is identified as the basic unit of language - the word, or lexeme.

The vocabulary of a particular language forms a lexical level. A class of word forms that have the same word-formation meaning constitutes a word-formation type - derivative topic. The class of word forms with identical formative affixes is identified in the grammatical form - grammeme.

The next stage of speech stream segmentation is to isolate the smallest significant units - morphs. Morphs with identical lexical (roots) and grammatical (functional and affixal) meanings are combined into one language unit – morpheme. The entire set of morphemes of a given language forms a morphemic level in the language system. The segmentation of the speech stream is completed by identifying minimal speech segments in morphs - sounds. Sounds, or backgrounds, different in their physical properties, can perform the same meaning-distinguishing function. On this basis, sounds are identified into one linguistic unit - phoneme. Phoneme is the minimal unit of language. The system of phonemes forms the phonological level of language.

Thus, identifying a level or subsystem of a language is allowed in the case when: the subsystem has the basic properties of the language system as a whole; the subsystem meets the requirement of constructibility, that is, the units of the subsystem serve to construct the units of the subsystem of a higher organization and are isolated from them; the properties of the subsystem are qualitatively different from the properties of the units of the underlying subsystem that construct it; a subsystem is defined by a language unit that is qualitatively different from the units of adjacent subsystems.

Language- a tool, a means of communication. This is a system of signs, means and rules of speaking, common to all members of a given society. This phenomenon is constant for a given period of time.

Speech- manifestation and functioning of language, the process of communication itself; it is unique for every native speaker. This phenomenon varies depending on the person speaking.

Language and speech are two sides of the same phenomenon. Language is inherent to any person, and speech is inherent to a specific person.

Speech and language can be compared to pen and text. Language is a pen, and speech is text written with this pen.

The main functions of the language are as follows:

1. Communication function Language as a means of communication between people. Thought-forming function a means of thinking in the form of words.
2. Cognitive (epistemological) function Language as a means of understanding the world, accumulating and transmitting knowledge to other people and subsequent generations (in the form of oral traditions, written sources, audio recordings).

Speech communication is carried out through language as a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language, and pronounces them using the speech organs. any language exists as a living language because it functions. It functions in speech, in statements, in speech acts. The distinction between the concepts of “language” and “speech” was first put forward and substantiated in a clear form by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, then these concepts were further developed by other scientists, in particular academician L. V. Shcherba and his students.

Language is thus defined as a system of elements (linguistic units) and a system of rules for the functioning of these units, common to all speakers of a given language. In turn, speech is specific speaking, occurring over time and expressed in audio (including internal pronunciation) or written form. Speech is understood as both the process of speaking (speech activity) and its result (speech works recorded in memory or writing).

Language is the property of the entire speech community. Being an instrument of communication, it can perform this function only when it is in relative stasis, that is, does not undergo fundamental changes. Language is distinguished by its systematicity, that is, the organization of its units.

Basic units of language and speech. Traditionally, there are 4 basic units of language: sentence, word (lexeme), morpheme, phoneme. Each language The unit has its own special function and has special qualities. characteristics, then each unit from the point of view of this quality is manifested. minimum (maximum). It is a generalization (abstraction) from many linguistic factors. Phoneme - smallest unit sound structure of the language, which itself does not matter, but Spanish. for the formation, recognition and discrimination of meaningful units. language: morphemes and words. Ch. f-i phonemes - distinguishes meaning. Morpheme - minimum significant eat. language, highlighted as part of a word, i.e. dependent, and Spanish. for word-formation or word-formation (form-formation). Token - the smallest independent significant unit. language with a nominative (nominal) function and having. lexical and grammatical know Offer - the minimum communicative unit, which is built according to the gram. laws of a given language and expresses relates. a complete thought. A linguistic unit correlates with a unit of speech as an invariant (combined variants) and a variant. Speech unit is the implementation of a linguistic unit in specific speech conditions. A phoneme corresponds in speech to an allophone (a variant of a phoneme). Morphemes appear in speech in the form of allomorphs (morphemes in their specific version in a specific word). A lexeme is a word in all the combinations of its meanings and forms. In speech, a word exists as a word form.

Language is a system of signs organized hierarchically, which means that each level is the predecessor of the other, and each subsequent level is based on the previous one.

LANGUAGE LEVEL – a set of homogeneous units and rules that regulate the behavior of these units.

Traditionally, the following language levels are distinguished:

1) Phonological

2) Morphological

3) Lexical

4) Syntactic (phrases + sentences)

5) Text level.

It is important to remember that each level contains both a language unit and a speech unit.

All units of language are abstract.

1) Phoneme- the smallest one-sided unit of language (it has a plane of expression and no plane of content), which has a sound expression, but has no meaning. Performs 2 functions:

Semantic (distinctive) – meadow-hatch, fox-forest, buy-guy, fox-box, good, food.

Construction (constitutive). (*k,l,a - do not have meaning, but perform a function in the formation of language *) - is a building material for units of a higher level. Monophthong - when it is a diphthong, the meaning changes in length and brevity. Suit – suite (look at the meaning of why they sound different)

Background- a sound uttered by a specific person in speech. The sound in speech reflects the specifics of a particular person, the timbre of the voice, defects, and melody.

2) Morpheme is the smallest, meaningful unit of language, has both form and meaning; two-way unit, has a plan of expression and a plan of content. Performs a construction function and partly a nominative one.

Positional classification of morphemes: morphemes are root and affix; both have meaning, BUT their meaning is different (position in relation to the horse). The meaning of the root is lexical, it is more specific. The meaning of the affix (by position in relation to the root: prefixes and postfixes) is either grammatical or lexical - grammatical and it is more abstract (*water - part of the words water, underwater, and conveys the meaning - associated with water, has to do with water. On the other hand, “n”, “nn” - the morpheme forms an adjective as a part of speech, but from this morpheme we cannot determine in advance the meaning of the adjectives they are included in, i.e. their meaning is abstract and grammatical. forms verbs with reflexive meaning, forms passive verbs, has lexical and grammatical meaning.

Let's consider the classification of morphemes by position in a word:

Suffixes are an affixal morpheme that follows the root.

Prefixes are an affixal morpheme that precedes a root.

Endings - found at the absolute end of a word.

Interfixes are an affixal morpheme that connects the components of a compound word. (handIcraft, stateSman, nowAdays).

Confixes are a complex affix consisting of two parts - the first part precedes the root, and the second part follows the root. They form grammatical forms of words and nouns with a collective meaning (ge mach-t – 3rd form of the verb to do). In the Polynesian language there is a word ke_pulau_an - archipelago, pulau - island. Window sill, Transbaikalia, genomic; a prefix and suffix are added at the same time (both in Russian and German).

Infixes are an affixal morpheme that is wedged into a root. Stand – stood – stood (N – infix). Available in Lithuanian:

Transfix - (Arabic language - faqura - was poor, afqara - became poor, ufqira - brought to poverty; the same consonants that carry lexical meaning, vowels express grammatical meaning, they reflect time, and can also carry word-formation meaning.). When an affix that breaks a root consisting of consonants and with the help of vowels reflects the grammatical meaning, and the consonants represent the root and carry a lexical meaning.

Morph is a text representative of a morpheme (ber-bir, ros-rast, mak-mok).

3) A lexeme is a word in the totality of all its lexical meanings. The lexeme is presented in dictionaries. The word “brush” is a part of the hand, an artist’s drawing tool. In speech, only one meaning of a word will be realized each time, and this will already be a word form (spring). There is semantic independence; positional and semantic independence.

A word form is a word in speech, in the totality of all its grammatical meanings.

4) Phraseme is an abstract unit of language, represented by a combination of at least two words, significant parts of speech. In speech, phrasemes are realized in the form of phrases.

Similarity: a word is a nominative function, a phrase is also a nominative function.

There are phrases: coordinating and subordinating (* mom and dad, fork with spoon, she*).

Coordinating phrases are characterized by the equal status of both components, which means that we can swap these components without compromising the meaning.

Subordinating phrases are characterized by the unequal status of both components; it is always possible to distinguish the main word and the dependent one.

Ways to formally express a connection:

In subordinating phrases, the following types of syntactic connections are distinguished:

Agreement is the assimilation of a dependent word to the main expression of all grammatical meanings (in English there is no gender, but there are words that refer to men or women and, with the help of 5 suffixes, refer to the female gender). It is not typical of the English language, this - theese

Adjacency - consists of simply placing the main and dependent components side by side without any changes to the dependent component (drive quickly).

Control - when controlling, the main word puts the dependent in a certain grammatical form, most often it is a case (I see a boy).

In English - when a verb requires a preposition - look for.

A sentence is one or more words.

The difference between a phrase and a sentence is predicativity - the attribution of content to reality and reality; expression using linguistic means of the relationship between the content of a statement and reality.

Intonation, actual division of sentences and communicative types of sentences - they are narrative (

Proposition- a structural diagram of a sentence or a syntactic pattern according to which any statement can be constructed. The minimal scheme of a sentence is represented by a subject and a predicate, while the main characteristic of the sentence is predication.

Predication– relating the content of a statement to reality (reality). Expressed in terms of tense, person and mood.

Spoken language unit- statement. Unlike a sentence, a statement has modality- the attitude of the speaker to the subject of the message. Statements are usually divided into various communicative types:

Declarative sentences (report a fact).

Interrogative sentences (request information).

Incentive offers (encourage action).

Obative sentences (express a wish - If only the rain would stop soon.)

Sometimes intermediate communicative types are also distinguished, when the form of a sentence does not correspond to its meaning. How much can I tell you about this! – this is a question in form, but motivating in function.

Borderline sentences – encourages eating,

but also asks something.

Text- a sequence of sentences that are characterized by the following features - they have a theme, stylistic features and modality. M. Ya. Bloch calls such a text a dicteme.

Theoretically, the minimum text can be 1 sentence, and the maximum text can be an entire work of art.

Paragraph (=over-time unity) is a sequence of sentences that are united by thematic unity and formal means of communication, i.e. there is a common theme and a certain connection that binds it into a single whole.

Bloch is also distinguished by Dictema.

Morphemes (affixes):

Derivational

Inflectional (endings) city - cities, walks - walked. Work – worked

Fundamental.

Lexical level (word level).

LECTURE 4 10/18/11

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

The phoneme performs 2 functions: semantically distinctive and constructive.

PHONETICS– a branch of linguistics that studies speech sounds from acoustic and articulatory points of view.

Acoustic aspect phoneme studies - studies sound as a physical phenomenon, like a sound wave propagating from the speaker to the listener.

Articulatory aspect– studies speech sounds from the point of view of their formation by the speech organs and perception by the hearing organs.

PHONOLOGY studies sounds from the point of view of their functioning in language.

ACOUSTIC ASPECT:

Sound is vibrational motion transmitted through the air and perceived by the human ear.

If the vibrations are uniform and periodic, then vowel sounds or TON appear. If the vibrations are uneven, non-periodic, then consonant sounds or noises appear.

There are sonorant consonants (l, m, n, p, th, w) in which there is both tone and noise, so these consonants in some languages ​​can form a syllable (in English table, pupil).

When characterizing sounds, the following parameters must be taken into account:

1. Pitch of sound - the number of vibrations per unit of time

2. Sound strength - vibration amplitude

3. Longitude of sound - duration of sound

4. Timbre –

ARTICULATIVE ASPECT:

Vowel classification:

· On the work of the language:

Nizhny Novgorod

Average (uh, oh)

Upper (and, y)

By horizontal movement of the tongue:

Front vowels (i, uh)

Middle vowel(s)

Back vowels (a, o, u)

· By the participation of the lips:

Rounded (labialized) (o, y, w)

Unrounded

By longitude:

(neither in English nor in Russian there is a clear position of a long short sound; in Russian, vowels sound longer under stress).

Classification of consonants:

· By place of education:

Labial (p, b, m)

Labiodental (f,v)

Dental (d,t)

Forelingual (t,d,)

Rear lingual (k, g, x)

· According to the method of barrier formation:

Stops (explosive) (b, p, d)

Slotted (v, f, h, s)

Affricates – combine the characteristics of stops and fricatives (ts, h)

· Palatalization (softening) – raising the anterior or middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (l’)

· Velarization is the opposite process of softening - raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate (exists in eastern languages ​​and Ukrainian).

SOUND CHANGES:

1. Combinatorial (combination)

1) Accommodation (sound likening) - likening a vowel sound to a consonant and vice versa (path and port - o and y are rounded and under the influence of these sounds the sound P becomes labialized).

2) Assimilation (sound likening) - likening a vowel sound to a vowel or a consonant sound to a consonant (fur coat - the dull sound K deafens the previous sound B, sew; birds - the voiced sound d likens itself to s and the result is z).

Progressive - the preceding sound influences the subsequent one (forward assimilation, as in birds).

Regressive - the subsequent sound affects the previous one (fur coat, shits).

It happens - verb

3) Dissimilation (dissimilarity of sound) - a phenomenon in which 2 identical or similar sounds become different for ease of pronunciation (easy - plosives, one of them turns into a fricative. It can be contact and distactic.

Dialects and ancient words

4) Metathesis - TV - plate Rearrangement

5) Haplology – simplification of words as a result of dissimilation. Tragicomedy - tragicomedy.

2. Positional (position) - determined by the position of sounds in a word. These changes affect sounds at the end of words and unstressed ones.

Reduction is a qualitative and quantitative change in sound. With a quantitative change, the sound simply drops out or shortens the duration of the sound.

With high quality, the pronunciation of the sound becomes less clear (without emphasis - water, water, but water).

Phoneme distribution is the totality of all those positions in which the phoneme occurs.

There are phonemes with unlimited (wide) distribution - they are found in all positions (y) (handle, crane, put on, morning, threw). Phoneme Н – is characterized by limited distribution. Does not occur at the beginning of a word (except for borrowed words) The village in Yakutia is Ynykchansky; do not occur after soft consonants).

Free variation of the phoneme - the use of different phonemes in the same word in the same position, the meaning of the word does not change (galoshes, overshoes; putty, putty).

Phoneme opposition is the opposition of phonemes according to one or more characteristics (/deafness, hardness/softness).

Binary - 2 sounds are contrasted according to 1 characteristic (voicedness, deafness).

Trinity - 3 sounds are contrasted according to several characteristics (English b, d, g - b labial, d anterior lingual, g posterior lingual).

Group - contrasting all vowels with all consonants based on the presence of tone, noise

Neutralization of a phoneme - the disappearance of a distinctive feature of a phoneme; deafening of voiced sounds at the end of a word (snowdrift; no in English).

There are 4 syllable theories:

1. The theory of the exhalation push - the number of syllables corresponds to the number of exhalations with force, pushes (cow - push 3).

2. The theory of sonority - sonorous sounds are formed in a word, i.e. those in which there is a tone (vowels and sonorant consonants)

3. Theory of Academician L.D. Shcherby – syllable = arc of muscular tension.

TYPES OF SYLLABLES:

Arakin came up with a damn idea

1) Completely closed syllable (cat)

2) Fully open (a, i)

3) Closed syllable (starts with a vowel, ends with a consonant; he, at)

4) Covered - a syllable that begins with a consonant and ends with a vowel (but, before, go, know, far).

Integral features– features that cannot be used to distinguish phonemes “ch”; softness is not an integral feature, because There is no hard “ch” in the Russian language.

Differential features- characteristics by which some phonemes differ from others.

Maslov – page 64-65 (phoneme opposition)

Observation of proportionality - if the relationship between members is proportional to the relationship between other members of the opposition. This relationship is repeated in other relationships. (Softness-hardness/sonority-dullness).

4. Ilchuk Elena Vechaslavovna

Privativny - one phoneme has a feature that the second phoneme does not have.

Gradual - strengthening of one or another characteristic. The degree of expression of a particular characteristic.

Equivalent - all phonemes are equal and their features are different. They are united by one common feature - b/d/g - sonority.

Phoneme options:

1. Mandatory - when the phoneme cannot be replaced by another option.

2. Positional (specific) depending on the position – mushroom and mushroom.

Phoneme distribution - the position that a phoneme can occupy

1.contrast volume, com, catfish, house.

2. the additional one is not found in the same environment and the meaning is not distinguished.

“seven” allafon more closed “sel” less closed

3.free variation. They are found in the same environment but their meanings do not differ.

Examples and definitions

Prosthesis –

Epenthesis –

Substitution –

Diaeresis –

Ellisia –

K.r. to the phoneme level

Lecture 6.

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V.P.Timofeev LANGUAGE AS A PHENOMENON. LANGUAGE UNITS

Language is not a subject, but a phenomenon - multifaceted, multidimensional, multiqualitative (in the diagram - clockwise):

3. Acoustic 4. Semantic

2. Physiological 5. Logical

6. Aesthetic

1. Mental4^

7. Social

This idea of ​​language has developed historically; it is the result of its study by individual linguists, schools and directions. In order to understand this single phenomenon of the realization of the human ability to speak, it is conventionally distinguished between language - in our scheme there are 3,4 facets and speech - 1,2,5-7 facets.

Each of the facets of language (speech) as a single phenomenon has its own discrete units, and each unit is studied by a special linguistic discipline (branch of linguistics).

The mental unit of language is the psyche, determined by the activity of thinking, will and temperament, as well as the sociology of character. The sciences about this side of language are psycholinguistics, ethnopsycholinguistics, linguodidactics.

The physiological unit of language (speech) is kinema. The science devoted to it should be independent and be called kinematics. Now kineme is reflected in terms that characterize the sound of a language at the place of formation, and as such has been the subject of phonetics since ancient times.

Acoustic units of language are all units from acousma to texteme. Thus, the materialized facet of language is the most essential: in it, in its units, all the qualities of language are fixed. Acousma and sound as units characterized by the method of formation of sound matter (voice strength, noise, tone, timbre, rhythm, meter, intonation) are studied by phonetics; the phoneme - actually the first speech-linguistic unit - is studied by phonology; morpheme - morphemics, morphonology, form and word formation as sections of morphology; lexeme - word - object of lexicology, lexicography, morphology; phrases, sentence members, sentences, texts are studied

syntax. Such an enumeration may seem banal if considered outside the context of these prolegomena.

The semantic, meaningful, ideal is embodied in linguistic units of a special kind: seme is the subject of the science of semiotics; seme - for semasiology, onomasiology, lexicology, lexicography; grammeme, manifested in two varieties, mophologeme - in morphology, syntaxeme - in syntax; expresseme - its meanings are more often considered in style.

The logical unit should be called a logeme, concretized in the subject of speech - the essence of the subject; in the general predicate - the essence of the predicate; in secondary predicates - the essence of the secondary members of the sentence - definitions, additions, circumstances; and in judgment - the essence of the constructions of affirmation, negation, question and exclamation. The science of logeme should be logolinguistics.

Aesthetic units are styleme and poeteme, and in it there are tropes and figures. Their sciences are, respectively, stylistics and linguistic poetics. At the junction of facets - idiolectology, the language of the writer, the language of works of art.

The social unit is the socium. It reflects the linguistic and speech characteristics of an individual, nation, class, gender, age, profession and relations of speakers in society. The sciences about this are sociolinguistics, stylistics, rhetoric, etiquette.

Linguistic facets, individually and collectively, together with linguistic-speech units, make up the structure of language. In connection with the conventional division of a single language into language and speech, they speak, also conventionally, about units of language and units of speech, but it is necessary to keep in mind that all units of speech are constructed on the material diversity of linguistic units and on their meanings (3.4 edges). This essence of linguistic and speech activity has not yet been satisfactorily studied by linguistics, and, for example, poetics is still in literary criticism and is not even divided into literary, artistic and linguistic.

All facets of language-speech and linguistic-speech units are in relationships and dependencies, but the determining ones are the mental and social facets: to them a person owes his exceptional destiny in the living world - to become a Man. All other facets of speech-language are specifically social and controlled by consciousness - the highest form of the psyche. All connections and relationships of linguistic-speech facets and units in their totality determine the character of the linguistic-speech system.

Language has three essential features - form, content and function, without each of which it cannot be realized. The same features, naturally, are inherent in all its constituent units, and in each of them the form,

content and functions will be independent. In the history of linguistics, the most noticeable linguistic units, under the influence of sensations and spelling, were material, perceptually given linguistic units from kinema and acousma to texteme, and even those were not discovered all at once, but one after another and little by little. Before listing them, we must keep in mind that they, linguistic units, are specifically human in everything - both in articulation, and in sound quality, and in structure, and in function (role, purpose); and they cannot be equated with another sounding, but non-speech nature, therefore the originality of their qualities is exceptional.

Kinema (term by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay from the Greek ksheta - movement) - an article as a single action of one organ of speech for the production of acousma - a share of sound (Greek akivikov - auditory, also a term by Baudouin de Courtenay). When we indicate the place of sound formation in phonetic analysis, this is the fixation of the kineme: p - labial-labial sound, f - labial-dental, l - anterior-lingual - dental, lateral; k - posterior lingual, root... Kinemes have not yet been fully studied: their names so far only take into account the articulatory organs, although the entire speech apparatus from the thoracoventral barrier to the brain is involved in production. Laryngeal kineme is rarely taken into account as a feature of voiced consonants and all vowels.

Acousma is the sound effect of kinema as a vibrating tone in space. When we name the method of sound formation during phonetic analysis, this is an indication of acousma: p - dull, hard, short; f - voiceless, fricative, hard, short; l - sonorous, smooth, hard, short; k - dull, explosive, hard, short.

Sound is a kinemo-acoustic unit, to which are added acoustic distinguishers - voice, strength, pitch, tone, timbre, as well as speech features of vowels - stressed, unstressed; and then the combination of sounds into syllables with their qualities of open-closedness, rhythm and meter - effects from the way they are followed in speech. The sound of a language, although it has speech characteristics, is not conventionally recognized as a linguistic unit due to the fact that it is supposedly not a meaning distinguisher or an expresser of meaning.

But the phoneme (Greek rIopesha - sound, also a term by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay) - it distinguishes significant units of language, morphemes and words: som - tom - com - house - scrap... This terminological transformation of sound is so strong in modern linguistic theory, it is impossible to somehow achieve unanimity on this issue today. When characterizing a phoneme as a linguistic unit, we will call its form the positional sound, how it differentiates the meaning (without expressing it!), and this is one of its functions, the other is its constructive role: phonemes independently

are not used, but, combining with each other on the basis of differential positions, create a larger linguistic unit - a morpheme. The arena of the functioning of the phoneme is, therefore, the morpheme, and it is within these limits that morphonology chooses its subject of study. This is the phoneme level, or tier of the language.

Morpheme (Greek shogIe - form, also a term by Baudouin de Courtenay) is the first linguistic unit in which the essential features of both the unit and the language are ideally represented: form, content, functions. The form of a phonemorpheme is, firstly, phoneme-na, that is, a morpheme consists of a phoneme or of phonemes: house-a. The form of a morpheme is also considered to be its position: the root is in the center of the morpheme association; before the root there is a prefix (prefix); behind the root there is a suffix or ending (inflection); infix - internal morpheme; postfix is ​​an external morpheme with its own qualities. The content of a morpheme consists of three types of meanings: lexical, grammatical, expressive-emotional. Lexical - objective, material content of the morpheme: garden#. The grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning; it accompanies the lexical meaning of another morpheme: sad-y, where ы expresses the meaning of plurality, nominativity. Morphemes expressing lexical meaning turn out to be word-formative: pilot; morphemes expressing grammatical meaning turn out to be formative, although they can also form new words: new, where inflection also turns out to be word-formative. The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings is easy to notice, for example, when declension of a noun, where the word will retain a single lexical meaning, for example, spring is the season, and will vary without affecting the lexical content: spring - spring; spring, springs, towards spring, spring, spring, about spring... Suffixes can also express the so-called expressive-emotional, subjective meanings of diminutive/increasing, endearment/derogation, disdain: little voice, neck, sock, cockerel. Morphemes express meaning without naming objects and their relationships. The first function of morphemes, like all subsequent linguistic units, is semantically expressive - it is necessary to express lexical, grammatical or expressive-emotional meanings. The second function of morphemes is constructive, that is, the creation of a larger linguistic unit - a word. Morphemes are not used independently, but only in combination with each other, in a homogeneous row, based on the harmony of their content and constancy of positions, creating a morphemic level, or tier.

The word is the central linguistic unit: it implements all the laws of existence of the smaller linguistic units included in it - phonemes and morphemes, it predetermines the essence

all subsequent larger linguistic units - phrases, sentence members, clauses and texts. Among hundreds of definitions of a word, there is one reasonable one: this is a piece of text between two spaces in a letter... First of all, it is necessary to divide the entire vocabulary of the language into four structural-semantic classes - words-names, or significant words, service words, introductory-modal words and interjections. All of them will be characterized differently from the point of view of the essence of linguistic units, and in the general system of their characteristics they will have different exceptions. I will talk about words-names.

In terms of form, all words have a phonemic and morphemic form; the latter also applies to service words and interjections. But word-names, that is, parts of speech, in addition, have forms correlative with each other, characteristic of narrow or broad grammatical categories: the category of case, where the system of forms is called declension; category of person, where the system of forms is called conjugation, and further - non-broad forms of gender, number, degrees, aspect, tense, mood, voice, differently represented in parts of speech. Correlative systems of forms are called paradigms - this is the original form of words as linguistic units. Function words, in addition to phonemic immutability, themselves participate in the creation of forms: prepositions - in the creation of forms of names in the case paradigm; particles are similar to service affixes: some - prefix, -or, -something - suffixes, the same is characteristic of the particle -sia; conjunctions form coordinating phrases and coordinating/subordinating clauses; articles are additional indicators of gender, number and definiteness/indeterminacy; copulas are the added form of compound nominal and complex predicates. Introductory-modal constructions are a complicating sentence structure. Interjections are always predicative - this is their positional form. Adverbs are inflectionally unchangeable, this is their form, like the zero form of nouns m.r. with a solid base. Their secondary position as members of a sentence - adverbial circumstances - distinguishes them, as a form, from the same non-inflectional class of words as instatives (words of the state category).

The form of a word also includes formative prefixes and suffixes, multi-root formations (I - me, we - us), repetition of roots (reduplication), stress, and word order.

The content of a word as a linguistic unit is equally diverse and differentiated. Firstly, the meaning is distinguished by four structural-semantic classes: parts of speech each have their own nominative meanings, called general grammatical ones: nouns name objects; adjectives - passive signs; numerals - a sign of number; pronouns - demonstrative; glogols - an active, effective sign; adverbs - attribute of attribute;

instatives - state; in function words - prepositions, word-building and formative particles (something, -something, -sya, -would); articles and connectives express grammatical and morphological meanings; conjunctions - grammatical-syntactic meanings (see meanings of phrases and sentences); input-modal constructions - modal-volitional meanings; interjections are sensual and emotional. Each of these meanings is divided into several private varieties. In nouns, the named objects can have the property of a proper name and a common noun, material and abstract, animate and inanimate; adjectives contain qualitative, relative, possessive attributes; they can also be presented in a positive, comparative, superlative, etc. degree; Numerals have quantitative, ordinal, fractional meanings...; in pronouns there are as many private meanings as are recorded in the categories; in the verb - varieties of actions, movements and states; in adverbs and instatives, the meanings in grammar textbooks are listed according to categories, where there will be meanings of adverbs and predicates (lexico-syntactic meanings).

In function words, their morphological and syntactic meanings will also vary across paradigms. There are categories of private meanings for modal words and interjections (see grammar textbooks). Now it should be said that the words-names have their own meaning, which is not equal to the sum of the meanings of the morphemes included in them: for example, in the word pod-snezh-nik, not a single morpheme even hints at a flower from the amaryllis family... This is its own, lexical the meaning of a word as a linguistic unit. A word has more than one lexical meaning, even many terms. In these meanings there is a first and all others, they are second, figurative. Lexical meanings can simply distinguish words, they can bring them together (these are synonyms) or contrast them on the axis of general meaning (antonyms). As you can see, a word expresses many types of meanings and their varieties; it is this set that is called polysemy.

The function of a word is again determined by two tasks: to express all the meanings it has, and for significant words, the expression of the lexical meaning is called its nominative function; and then - to construct a larger linguistic unit - a phrase. Words are not used separately from each other; they necessarily need to be combined in one row based on the harmony of their meaning and the interaction of their forms (that is, based on predetermined valency). This combination of words is realized in a phrase.

A phrase is a syntactic unit and it could be called a syntagmeme as something connected (Greek sintagma), although such a name suggests a combination of phonemes and morphemes... F.F. Fortunatov’s division of words into those with a form and those without it convinced M.N. .Peterson that a combination of words on this basis, that is, the phrase is the only subject of syntax. Next there will be more members of the sentence, sentence and texteme... The accusation of F.F. Fortunatov and his student M.M. Peterson in formalism also closed the theory of phrases. Only since 1950, after the articles of V.P. Sukhotin and V.V. Vinogradov in the collection “Questions of the syntax of the modern Russian language” (Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1950), and then after the first Soviet Academic Grammar (1952), the theory of phrases developed in its entirety breadth, and some scientists, unable to tear themselves away from the word, tilted phrases towards nominative units (V.P. Sukhotin and others), and V.V. Vinogradov, assuming a sentence, considered it possible to talk about predicative phrases, although it is clear that predicativity is a term at the level of sentence and clause members, that is, it relates as a definition to other linguistic units... And until now, in determining the characteristics of a phrase, there is no unity of opinion and each scientist’s own understanding seems true. I liked the definition of the phrase given once in the 50s at a lecture by Prof. S.E. Kryuchkov, my supervisor: “A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, grammatically organized according to the laws of a given language, uniform in meaning and distinctly denoting objects, phenomena, their signs and relationships in objective reality.” From this definition it follows that the combination of a function word with a significant one is not a phrase and that in a phrase the multiple meaning of a word is narrowed to a specific given meaning, that is, in a phrase the words are always used in one meaning, and double-mindedness in the same case is either aphasia or a means of humor . Phraseologists of the Chelyabinsk school consider a word form with or without a preposition to be phraseologically idiomatic, which is possible, but this is a property of another process in language - lexicalization...

So, the form of a phrase as a linguistic unit is, first of all, a word-formal implementation of the connection of significant words - composition and subordination, which is why phrases are called coordinating and subordinating. In coordinating phrases, the first formal feature is the correlated, correlative forms of combining words: thunder and lightning, where the words are correlated by the singular and nominative case forms. In such phrases, as their formal sign, as their form, function words appear - conjunctions that separate the compositions.

noun phrases into the following formal varieties: connective without a conjunction or with a conjunction I: both sling and arrow; adversative, with the conjunction BUT or A, YES in the meaning of BUT; dividing with conjunctions OR-OR; comparative with conjunctions HOW MUCH-SO MUCH, AS-SO AND. In subordinating phrases, the form is the syntactic connections of agreement, complete and incomplete; management, direct or indirect; adjacency of a word with a zero form.

The content of phrases is precisely the meaning that is reflected by tradition in their names-terms: composition, subordination, and in composition - connection, opposition, division, comparison; in subordination - coordination, control, adjacency - this is the elusive syntactic meaning of phrases introduced into them by conjunctions and the relationship of word forms. In general, the meaning of phrases is specific, just as the meaning of a word is general.

The function of phrases is to express their own meaning as special linguistic units and only at the same time - the meanings of the smaller linguistic units included in them, and then at the same time be embodied component by component into larger linguistic units - members of the sentence. Unfortunately, no one looks at the members of a sentence from the standpoint of their form, content, and function as independent linguistic units, although, when discussing them, they list all their essential features. What are they?

Each member of the sentence has either uniform in use, that is, central forms, or possible, not so advantageous, but also real: so, Im.p. nouns and personal pronouns - the subject form, although it can be a nominal part of a compound predicate or an application; conjugated verb - only a predicate, the same - comparative degree; the same goes for instatives, being always predicates; and the same adverbs, being almost always circumstances. The form of the subject is a special form in language: substantivizing, expressing the subject of an action or something known, the subject can become any element of the language system, any stroke of writing, any handwriting and, finally, any object or phenomenon named in speech by a predicate word can become the subject-subject : “Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy...” In nominative sentences of all types, there is a non-subject, by which the object is supposedly named, but nothing is said about it, but a predicate-predicate!.. The form of the predicate is also specific: simple verb, compound verbal, compound nominal, complex polynomial. Secondary members of a sentence are minor predicates, which also have preferential forms of parts of speech, but, most importantly, their own forms: definition - agreed, inconsistent; addition - direct, indirect; circumstance - in

dependent in meaning or form on a prepositional-case or unchangeable structure. The form of the members of a sentence should also be called their positions, which are known by the phrase “direct and reverse word order,” which is formulated incorrectly, because the order in a sentence concerns not the words-lexemes, but the words-members of the sentence. When the members of a sentence are actualized, their form becomes logical stress.

The content of the members of a sentence is determined by their logical nature: for subjects, the meaning is the subject; for predicates - the meaning of the predicate, although the content of the main members is reflected in their terms: the subject is subject to disclosure, the predicate speaks about it, this is known and unknown, which constitutes the goal, the basis of any speech; for definitions - an indirect predicate in the form of a definition; for additions - an indirect predicate in the form of a complementary meaning; in circumstances - an indirect predicate indicating the circumstances in which the sign appears: where, when, how, to what extent, to what extent, for what... When V.V. Vinogradov spoke about predicative, semi-predicative and non-predicative phrases, and others began to talk, following this, about attributive, additional and adverbial phrases, this was a fact of confusion between the level of phrases and sentence members: the components of phrases do not have such relationships, these are properties of sentence members... The content of sentence members should be called conceptual-predicative , this is determined by the nature of their purpose.

The function of the members of a sentence is to express their informational meaning and the content of all the smaller constituent units included in them, and at the same time, to unite, based on the harmony of meaning and intended positions, into a larger linguistic unit - a sentence.

The form of a sentence is, first of all, the presence of the composition of the members of the sentence: if there is one predicate (there is no one subject in a normal sentence), the sentence is one-part, and there are eight of them in descending order of the meaning of the person and the form of the predicate: definitely-personal, generalized-personal , indefinite personal, impersonal, infinitive, nominative, nominative, vocative; if there are two main members - subject and predicate, this is a two-part sentence; depending on the presence or absence of minor members of the sentence, the form of the sentence will be common or non-widespread; if a sentence consists of one predicative pair, it is simple; if of the two, it is complex; depending on the presence of unions in the form of a proposal, it can be union or non-union; The intonation of a sentence serves as a form of expression of the actual role of one or another member of the sentence or the will and emotions of the speaker. IN

In written speech, the form of the sentence will be set off by punctuation marks.

The content of a sentence as a linguistic unit is predicativity, which is specified in the affirmation or denial of the connection between the main members of the sentence; the relevance of one or another member of the proposal; modality as an expression of the will of the speaker, attitude to what is said; and, finally, emotionality, without which there can be no proposal. The content of the sentence is expressive-communicative, because it serves the function of the sentence - to express a thought and establish a connection between the speaker and the interlocutor. The semantic core of a sentence is the judgment embodied in it. The function of a sentence to express a thought and communicate it to another was considered the last for a long time; the last among linguistic units was the sentence. That is, if you still have a thought, say another sentence. And so on. And if so, then the speaker no longer seemed to have needs for units of any higher level than the sentence, and he did not create them. It turns out that there can be no proposal to anyone alone! A second, response sentence is definitely necessary - this is the law of the existence of speech, that is, language. Speech is possible if there is an interlocutor and his verbal response. This understanding of the conditions for the existence of sentences naturally prompted researchers to search for and approve a larger linguistic unit - the text.

The texteme, therefore, is the constructive unit of language that sentences create when used side by side with each other on the basis of the need to express actual adequate content, the interaction of formal composition, united by a single intonation of a message, description or reasoning.

The volumetric form of textems is indicated in the school syntax textbook, being taken outside the Russian language course, because the authors are perplexed that these are textems: direct and indirect speech, dialogue, monologue... Before this, within syntax, the so-called incomplete a sentence that is, in fact, part, the second sentence of the texteme. In prose, part of the text is, of course, the paragraph; in oral speech - a long pause, a silence with which the speaker considers it necessary to divide his speech. In drama, the form of the textema looks like a stage and is fixed by the author's remarks. In a verse, textemes fit into a stanza, in a combination of stanzas, and in a small genre - throughout the entire poem. The form of the verse system is meter, rhyme, sound writing, and the structure of tropes and figures. In oral speech, it is limited to that moment of the dialogue after which the speakers may disperse or both may fall silent. All these are technical forms of textema; they are determined by the genres of oral and written speech; By the way, oral/written is also a form of texteme... But texteme also has purely linguistic

formal features: the same form of tense of predicate verbs or simply predicates in sentences included in the text (different tenses can be used as an artistic means of depiction: rapid change of events, etc.); the presence of anaphoric pronouns and words in the subsequent sentence; the presence of synonyms and antonyms placed in different sentences of the text; words that echo some meaning in the sentences that make up the text; intonation of message, description or reasoning; the intonation of a dialogue or monologue completes the form of the text.

The content of the texteme as a linguistic unit first corresponds to the quality of the form: message, description, reasoning, and in general is defined as informative and thematic. It is especially clearly emphasized by the words of one lexical-thematic group. The content of the text should include only its inherent semantics - pathos: triumph, pathos, despondency, humility, humor, irony, sarcasm, etc. Here is the text - the inscription on the civil war monument erected on Revolution Square in Shadrinsk: “Here lie selfless fighters for communism, victims of Kolchak’s gangs. Lenin’s cause will not die! On the bones of the best and brave, millions of calloused hands are building a world Commune.” In 1978, I heard my Komsomol youth song “When the soul sings...” performed by a choir of nuns in a broadcast from Seoul; sang humbly, sadly, subtly, pleadingly, submissively, conscientiously: “When the soul sings And the heart asks to fly, On a distant journey, the high sky calls us to the stars... Keep the lights of your soul in your heart, Let them glow, If suddenly Cloudy days will meet..." The pathos of vivacity and enthusiasm is replaced by the pathos of angelic complacency...

The function of the texteme is to create text in the genres of oral and written speech with all its expressive essence.

As you can see, all linguistic units naturally correspond to the main features of language - they have form, content and function. These features manifest themselves in the interaction of linguistic units in a homogeneous series, which is called a level or tier: phonemic level, morphemic, lexical, etc. This is a horizontal indicator of the language system. But there is also a vertical system, when linguistic units of different tiers interact: phonemes with morphemes, morphemes with words, words with subsequent linguistic units, entering each other like a nesting doll into a nesting doll. The theory of all national languages ​​is devoted to the interaction of linguistic units horizontally and vertically. Each language has its own structure as a set of facets and linguistic units in their systemic connections and relationships.

The presented understanding of language as a phenomenon and the totality of its constituent units located in structural-systemic connections, of course, is not equal to language, but it helps research orientation and educational practice.

1. As significant units of language, morphemes exist only in a word, while words usually appear (if they themselves do not form sentences: it’s a shame, it’s a pity, undoubtedly not, etc.) as part of a sentence.
2. While words in their overwhelming mass are structural wholes of a composite nature, morphemes are always the smallest significant units of language, the division of which into even smaller ones is impossible.
3. Unlike words, morphemes do not have lexico-grammatical relevance. Words always appear in a language as structural units belonging to a specific lexical and grammatical category. Therefore, any word is necessarily a lexico-grammatical unity. A morpheme either represents an indication of a specific meaning, or performs grammatical functions. 1
4. Words can be not only reproducible units, but also formations created by speakers or writers in the process of communication (it is precisely this property that word production as a linguistic phenomenon owes its existence to). Morphemes are always reproducible (the property of “creativity” is not typical for them) and are therefore the final significant elements of language, extracted from memory as ready-made and integral units.

More on the topic § 6. Morpheme as the minimum significant unit of language and words:

1. 21. Morphemics. Formal and semantic aspects of the structure of the morpheme as the minimum meaningful unit of language. Morpheme.
2. 22. Morpheme as an invariant, its variants are morphs (allomorphs). Morpheme as a unit of vocabulary and text. Zero morpheme in Russian. Morphemic composition of non-derivative infinitives.
3. 5.1 Morphemics as the study of significant parts of a word - morphs and morphemes
4. 9. Units of morphemic structure. Morph and morpheme. Principles of classification of morphemes in the Russian language.
5. 21. Morphemics. Formal and semantic side. pages of morphemes as minimally significant units of language. Morpheme as a medium of word expression, grammatical meaning, associative character of morphemic semantics. Form coincidence of the morpheme with the word, neutralization. the role of context.