Defensive reflex in animals. Animal behavior. Features of unconditioned reflexes

Normal activity of the cerebral cortex occurs as a result of the interaction of two processes - excitation and inhibition. A reflex is an involuntary response of the body to irritation of a particular part of the animal’s body. The path along which the reflex occurs is called a reflex arc.
Irritations received by animals from the external environment or arising in the animal’s body are transmitted through nerve endings (receptors) and sensory nerves to the central nervous system - to the nerve cells of the spinal cord and brain. From them, the response to excitation is transmitted along the motor fibers. As a result, a response occurs: withdrawal of a limb in response to painful stimulation, blinking of an eyelid in response to stimulation of the pupil, etc. In a similar way, the simplest reactions are carried out in the body of an animal from its birth, they are called innate, or unconditioned, reflexes. Examples include the sucking reflex in newborns, coughing when the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract is irritated, etc. Unconditioned reflexes include food (chewing, swallowing, salivation), defensive and sexual ones.
Along with unconditioned reflexes, conditioned reflexes are developed during the life of an animal. Conditioned reflexes arise with the participation of the cerebral cortex on the basis of unconditioned reflexes. They appear only when external stimulation (light, sound) coincides with the implementation of an unconditioned reflex. I. P. Pavlov proved that if for some time some conditioned stimulus, foreign to the dog’s food activity, for example, a bell, is combined with feeding, then a moment will come when just the lighting of the light bulb causes the same reaction in the dog as the light itself. feeding, - salivation.
When conditioned and unconditioned stimuli follow one after another in a certain sequence, then in the cerebral cortex this sequence of environmental phenomena can be imprinted in the form of a dynamic stereotype. With a strict daily routine on the farm, animals develop appropriate reflexes that prepare them for milk production, eating, going out for a walk, etc. A change in the daily routine in the barnyard leads to a violation of the dynamic stereotype and, as a rule, causes inhibition and extinction of previously formed conditioned reflexes and the creation of new ones, resulting in disruption of physiological processes and a decrease in animal productivity.
Sense organs (analyzers). The body’s connection with the external environment is carried out through the senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch. With their help, animals respond to feeding and housing conditions.
Farm animals have well-developed organs of vision, hearing and somewhat less well developed organs of taste, smell and touch. Each analyzer has its own zone in the cerebral cortex. However, the property of receptors (the perceiving part of the organ) to respond only to appropriate stimuli does not prevent the analyzers from interacting with each other. The body receives signals from all analyzers simultaneously and responds to them with appropriate actions.

Animal reflexes

It is known that the regulation of all activities of a living organism, in particular reactions to all kinds of changes in both the external and internal environment, and therefore adaptability to existence in certain specific conditions, is carried out by the central nervous system. Moreover, its main form of activity is a reflex, that is, the body’s reaction to irritation of receptors - sensitive nerve endings.

The latter convert the energy of various stimuli (temperature, mechanical, chemical, etc.) into excitation energy.

The resulting neural changes are transmitted along the reflex arc and transferred to the so-called effector (muscle or organ as a whole - approx. biofile.ru).

The perceived irritations are analyzed by the central nervous system, due to which the body’s response is formed. Such analysis allows the animal to orientate itself well in its environment and respond to the changing conditions of its existence.

All animal behavior is made up of a combination of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. All unconditioned reflexes are innate, their number is small, and they appear immediately after the birth of the animal.

Food reflex

Physiologists consider the food reflex to be one of the main ones. As soon as the chick is born, it begins to peck at the food. Newborn calves, lambs, and piglets begin to seek and suck the mother's udder. Conditioned reflexes are not innate; they are developed during the life of an animal as a temporary connection between the body and environmental factors.

They are strictly individual and can appear and disappear throughout life. This ensures the adaptation of a living organism to constantly changing environmental conditions.

Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditioned ones. So, for example, if nutrition itself is an unconditioned food reflex, then getting used to any particular food forms the basis of a conditioned reflex.

If a newborn is fed only milk from the very beginning, then he will not show interest in any other food.

In order for animals or birds to develop a conditioned reflex, a preceding stimulus is necessary. So, for example, if at the beginning of feeding a certain sound signal lasting 5-10 seconds is first given for several days, then soon the animal or bird will develop a conditioned reflex to this sound stimulus.

Approximate reflexes

Orienting reflexes in animals are externally expressed by turning the eyes, head, ears, and sometimes the entire body towards the stimulus.

The animal examines it, listens and sniffs it. The orienting reflex is caused by each new stimulus: light, sound, temperature, etc.
Any new phenomenon, including the cessation of the stimulus, causes an indicative reaction in the animal. But unlike other unconditioned reflexes, the orienting reflex is very unstable.

Reflex (biology)

In the room where the dog is, a light flashes every 2 minutes.

The first flash will cause a very strong indicative reaction - the dog will hide, listen, and sniff. During subsequent outbreaks, the indicative reaction will weaken and after the tenth or twentieth outbreak it will not appear at all. The dog stopped reacting to the light stimulus, since nothing followed the flash. The reflex does not appear because the process of inhibition has occurred. With the help of orienting reflexes, animals notice all new vital stimuli in time.

A fox hears the rustling of a mouse running in the grass, a deer hears the sound of a branch cracking under the hunter’s foot, a fish notices the shadow of a fisherman falling on the water, etc.

In higher animals and humans, numerous conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of the unconditioned orienting reflex.

It is the orienting reflex that makes it possible to perceive stimuli, which then become conditioned signals.

Defensive reflexes

Most living things have many natural enemies. Animals avoid danger and preserve life in different ways.

They hide, hide or quickly run away when they see an enemy, smell him or hear his steps from afar. Danger signals are irritants associated not only with the enemy himself.

The cry of a magpie, the chirping of a jay, the cry of a caught victim also warns of danger.

Predatory animals search for prey not only by its smell, appearance or sounds it makes.

Stimuli that do not have a direct connection with their prey: the type of area where it is found, the time of day at which it was caught, etc. become conditioned signals for them.

The behavior of animals when they are escaping from predators or a hunter is often very complex.

It is the result of the formation and manifestation of many conditioned defensive reflexes.

Sexual reflex

The sexual reflex is a biological instinct of reproduction, often suppressing other reflexes.

During the period of estrus, bitches may refuse to eat; their conditioned reflexes fade away to a large extent. Males often get out of control and run after females in heat. An overly pronounced sexual reflex makes it difficult to train a dog.

These are the body’s responses when nerve endings (receptors) are irritated by influences from the internal or external environment.

In vertebrates, sensory nerves conduct excitation from receptors to the brain or spinal cord. Here, in the nerve center, the received information is processed, resulting in a certain reaction. The brain signal is transmitted through the nerve to the muscles or internal organs. This path - from excitation to response - is called a reflex arc.

Receptors in the organs and tissues of the body, like sentinels, tirelessly perceive the influence of the environment and carry information to the nerve center, which regulates the normal functioning of all organs and tissues.

The outstanding Russian scientist-physiologist I.P. Pavlov divided all the diverse reflexes according to their origin, mechanism and biological significance into unconditioned and conditioned.

Unconditioned reflexes are innate, hereditarily fixed species reflexes.

For example, no one teaches a newborn baby mammal to eat, but he immediately looks for his mother’s nipple and begins to suck milk. Most animals can swim without prior training. All cats, when they see danger that they cannot avoid, arch their backs and hiss. Dogs growl and bark when attacked. Hedgehogs curl up into a ball. These are defensive unconditioned reflexes. They manifest themselves differently in different species of animals, but in animals of the same species the unconditioned reflexes are the same.

Unconditioned reflexes in combination with behavioral reactions genetically inherent in the body determine the general plan of animal behavior.

Conditioned reflexes are formed during the individual life of an individual. For example, each animal responds to its own name. Each dog has its own set of conditioned reflexes, its own life experience, which can be richer due to special upbringing and training.

The training of service dogs, horses, training of animals in the circus, etc. is based on conditioned reflexes.

2. Unconditioned reflexes

When developing a conditioned reflex, the conditioned stimulus must precede the unconditioned one. If you do the opposite, then the conditioned reflex is not formed.

The following experiments were carried out in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov: dogs were first given food (unconditioned stimulus), and then after a few seconds a light bulb was turned on (conditioned stimulus). Despite the fact that this combination was repeated many times, it was not possible to develop a conditioned reflex to the light of a light bulb.

But if a light bulb was first lit and then food was given, the animals began to perceive the light of the light bulb as a signal for food: when the light bulb was turned on, the dogs salivated, even if food was not given.

In the filming of the film “White Bim Black Ear”, the role of Bim was played by a dog who previously bore the nickname “Dandy”. During filming, the actors called the dog Bim and she responded willingly. But when the dog was returned home from filming to the owner and he tried to call her Bim, she did not respond to this name.

The dog went to the owner only with the nickname “Dandy”. As you can see, the previously developed conditioned reflex to the owner, who called him Dandy, fed him and caressed him, turned out to be stronger than the new reflex to a different name.

Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes help animals quickly adapt to the environment and determine their behavior in order to survive in natural conditions.

Dogs are prepared for service use through training.

Training- this is the process of consistently developing and consolidating in a dog the actions needed by a person. The main goal of training is to change the dog’s behavior in the intended direction and achieve the desired actions from it, for example, searching for an intruder using the trace he left, protecting a home or some object, etc. Dog training always solves two main problems: -firstly, it ensures good obedience () of the dog and, secondly, it specializes the dog for use in a certain type of service (guard, search, protective guard, sled, etc.). In this regard, it is customary to distinguish general and special training.

During the training process, the human influence on the dog and its behavior are closely related. Behavior is the totality of all the actions of an animal, with the help of which the body adapts to environmental conditions and satisfies its vital needs. The dog's body has certain natural characteristics that influence its behavior and service use. Thus, most dogs have significant viciousness and are capable of not only actively defending themselves, but also attacking.

Dogs have well-developed sense organs. Their sense of smell allows them to accurately differentiate different odors and track an animal or person using the trail they leave. Thanks to their fine hearing, dogs perceive faint sounds and distant rustles better than humans. Despite the fact that the dog’s visual organs poorly distinguish colors, it perceives well the movement and shape of all kinds of objects. Dogs quickly navigate terrain and are well oriented in new surroundings.

The behavior of a trained dog is characterized by the fact that it largely depends on the trainer, who, through his influences, encourages the dog to perform certain actions (planting or laying down, guarding things, working on the scent, etc.).

The behavior of an untrained dog is determined only by its vital needs (hunger, self-defense, sexual desire, etc.) and stimuli acting from the environment.

To successfully conduct training, you must be able to correctly evaluate your actions in relation to the dog and have a good understanding of the peculiarities of its behavior. And for this you need to know the theoretical foundations of training, which determine the basic principles and rules of training.

The theoretical foundations of training are based on the teachings of the famous Russian physiologist Academician I.P. Pavlov (1849–1936) about higher nervous activity.

Academician Pavlov called the highest unequal activity the work of the cerebral hemispheres to establish a connection between the body and the environment. Knowledge of the fundamentals of Pavlov’s teaching on higher nervous activity as applied to training allows the trainer to build his work not, but consciously. A trainer with such knowledge understands well all the problems that arise before him and correctly selects the most suitable methods and techniques for influencing the dog to solve them.

Knowledge of the theoretical foundations of training allows the trainer to show reasonable initiative and creativity in training service dogs.

A dog's behavior is determined by the activity of the central nervous system and environmental influences. Any impact on a living organism that causes a response - a reaction on the part of the latter - is called irritant. The central nervous system establishes a connection between the dog’s body and various environmental stimuli through reflexes. Reflex is the response of the central nervous system to a stimulus. If, for example, a piece of food enters the dog’s oral cavity, it will affect the perceptive endings of the sensory - centripetal, taste nerve, which are located in the dog’s oral cavity and form the taste receptor. Irritation from this receptor is transmitted to the central nervous system. The latter switches the perceived irritation to the executive - centrifugal nerve fibers, along which the irritation is directed to the working organs: salivary glands, swallowing muscles. As a result of this, reflexes arise: salivation and swallowing food.

The anatomical basis of any reflex is the reflex arc. Reflex arc called the nervous path along which irritation passes from the perceiving receptor organ, through the central nervous system to the executive working organs - muscles or glands (Fig. 22). The main receptor organs of a dog are the organs of smell, hearing, vision, touch, and taste. Depending on the number of reflex arcs involved in the implementation of the reflex, simple and complex reflexes are distinguished. Thus, a dog withdrawing its paw when pricked will be a simpler reflex than the reflex of a dog sitting down when the trainer presses on its croup, or than an attack by a dog.

1 - leather; 2 - skeletal muscles; 3 - sensory nerve; 4 - motor nerve; 5 - nerve cell of a sensitive neuron; 6 - motor neuron nerve cell; 7 - gray matter of the spinal cord; 8 - white matter of the spinal cord

Reflexes should also be distinguished by origin. Academician Pavlov divided the reflexes of dogs and other animals into unconditioned and conditioned. An unconditioned reflex is an innate reflex that is firmly inherited from parents to offspring. A striking example of such a reflex is the food or sexual reflex. Conditioned reflexes- these are reflexes acquired during the life of an animal. An example of such reflexes can be all the actions a dog performs during the training process. In this sense, training is the process of consistently developing persistent conditioned reflexes in a dog to perform various actions at the request of the trainer. Conditioned reflexes are developed on the basis of unconditioned innate ones, so the trainer must be well aware of the unconditioned reflexes inherent in dogs.

Academician Pavlov distinguished four main unconditioned reflexes in dogs: orientation-exploratory, food, defensive and sexual. These reflexes are the radiant nerve; form the innate basis of a dog’s behavior and belong to complex unconditioned reflexes. Such reflexes are usually designated by the term. Instinct is a complex unconditioned reflex, which is the hereditary basis of animal behavior and is aimed at satisfying a specific need of the body: food, self-defense, sexual, parental, etc. According to their biological significance, instincts are divided into two groups: instincts of self-preservation and instincts of preservation of the species. The first group includes instincts that ensure the existence of each dog or other animal separately. These instincts include food and defensive reflexes. The second group includes instincts aimed at obtaining and preserving offspring. This includes sexual and parental instincts.

The founder of evolutionary theory, Charles Darwin, pointed out the great importance of instincts in animal behavior in his brilliant work. Complex unconditioned reflexes-instincts are also of great importance for training animals. The famous trainer V.L. Durov has repeatedly noted that one of the basic principles of training is. For example, in the process of working out a general training course, the so-called (landing, laying down, standing still, jumping, running, etc.) are widely used, which manifest themselves in all dogs as unconditioned reflexes even before training. The trainer’s task is to achieve the manifestation of these reflexes on demand - according to the trainer’s signals and to instill in the dog endurance in a certain position, adopted by one or another signal (for example, by a command or an appropriate gesture). Teaching a dog to present an object by sound signal is also based on the use of the reflex of grasping an object moving in front of the dog's muzzle. This unconditioned grasping reflex is well manifested in most dogs.

Complex unconditioned reflexes related to instincts are especially important for training service dogs. This - orientation-exploratory, food, defensive and sexual reflexes.

Orienting reflex occurs as a result of the action of various new stimuli on the dog. Thanks to this reflex, the dog becomes familiar with a new environment or an unfamiliar stimulus. As the dog's body adapts to the environment, as well as during training, this reflex becomes more complex. As a result, the dog exhibits complicated actions, for example, searching for a departed owner, searching for a criminal on the trail, etc.

Food reflex manifests itself in a hungry dog ​​in searching and eating food. The manifestation of the food reflex is of great practical importance during training. Based on the use of this reflex, dogs are trained to carry loads and perform mine-search service.

Defensive reflex serves as protection from adverse influences or attacks and manifests itself in two forms: active-defensive and passive-defensive. The manifestation of an active defensive reflex (anger) ensures the use of dogs in guard, guard and search services. In contrast to the active-defensive reflex, a strong manifestation of the passive-defensive reflex (cowardice) negatively affects the training and work of dogs. A cowardly dog ​​slowly gets used to the trainer and its performance decreases sharply under the influence of various extraneous stimuli (gunshot, noise, etc.).

Sexual reflex occurs during sexual arousal. This reflex is not used directly during training, but has great indirect significance. Special studies and practical experience show that females are somewhat easier to train than males, but males are more resilient than females. A strongly expressed sexual reflex (especially in males) has a negative impact on training, as it causes distractions.

Indicative, defensive, food and sexual reflexes manifest themselves in dogs in different ways. This depends on heredity, the general physiological state of the body and the influence of the environment (including upbringing).

Research has shown that the defensive reflex in active-defensive and passive-defensive forms is to a certain extent inherited in dogs. However, the nature of the manifestation of a defensive reaction (active or passive form) also depends on the environment, in particular on upbringing. It has been established, for example, that puppies raised in a cage exhibit characteristic cowardice, in contrast to puppies raised in freedom, under the condition of extensive communication with various stimuli. From this it is clear how important the education of puppies is for the subsequent behavior of an adult dog. The manifestation of complex reflexes - instincts also depends on the general physiological state of the dog (hunger, heat, illness, etc.). Thus, in a hungry dog, the food instinct will be more pronounced than in a well-fed one. In a puppy dog ​​with puppies, the defensive complex reflex very often manifests itself in an active form, even if in this dog it did not manifest itself before whelping. In this case, this reflex is aimed at protecting puppies and has great biological significance.

A complex instinct-type reflex, which is most pronounced in a given dog and dominates its behavior, is called the prevailing reaction. Consistently and strongly expressed predominant reactions are of great importance for dog training. In this regard, dogs with a strongly expressed active-defensive reaction (anger) are best used for guard duty. If a dog has a predominant food reaction, which is usually accompanied by trust in people who give it food, then it is advisable to use such a dog for carrying light loads or for search and rescue service.

In addition to food and defensive reactions, indicative or sexual reactions may temporarily prevail. If the indicative reaction predominates, the dog peers and listens, as if looking for something, the slightest noise brings it out of its resting state. The predominance of the sexual reaction is usually observed in males if an empty female is nearby.

The indicative reaction should be well expressed in every dog ​​intended for service use, however, a sharp predominance of such a reaction is undesirable, as it will distract the dog during training. A strongly expressed sexual reaction also negatively affects training, as it causes distraction. When training, it is necessary to take into account that in most dogs the sexual reaction prevails only at certain times of the year (especially in spring).

The occurrence and manifestation of the predominant reaction is based on the phenomenon of dominance. The essence of this phenomenon is that under certain conditions in the nerve centers that determine the manifestation of one or another reflex, persistent excitation can arise, prevailing over the excitation of other nerve centers. As a result, all reflexes that depend on the center with the greatest excitation acquire the greatest strength and persistence of manifestation and form the predominant reaction.

If unconditioned reflexes represent the innate basis of a dog’s behavior, then conditioned reflexes are acquired by the animal during its life.

In service dog breeding, various conditioned reflexes necessary for the service use of dogs are developed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes during the training process.

Conditioned reflexes are produced only under certain conditions, which is why Academician Pavlov gave them this name. The main condition is the coincidence in time of the action of two stimuli, one of which is unconditioned and causes a certain unconditioned reflex (for example, salivation), and the other - any stimulus from the external environment (sound, light) that is not important for this unconditioned reflex. The mechanism of formation of a conditioned reflex, according to the experiments of Academician Pavlov and his students, is as follows.

If, before giving the dog food, you ring a bell placed near it (Fig. 23), the following will happen. Food entering the dog’s oral cavity causes irritation, which is transmitted to the food center of the unconditioned reflex located in the medulla oblongata. A focus of excitation will arise in the food center, the irritation will be directed to the salivary gland, which will begin to secrete saliva. This will be the path of the reflex arc of the unconditioned reflex. At the same time, irritation from the medulla oblongata will go to the food center of the cerebral cortex, where a focus of excitation will also arise. Since before receiving food or simultaneously with it, the dog will be exposed to a sound stimulus (the ringing of a bell), a focus of excitation also appears in the auditory center located in the temporal part of the cerebral cortex. Consequently, three foci of excitation will exist simultaneously in the dog’s brain, and a certain neural connection (closure) will be established between them.

1 - sensory nerve of the tongue; 2 - salivary gland; 3 - skull; 4 - food cortical center; 5 - auditory sensory nerve; 6 - auditory nerve center; 7 - connecting nerve pathway; 8 - unconditional food center; 9 - medulla oblongata; 10 - motor (secretory) nerve

After the formation of such a short circuit between the nerve centers, it will be enough to influence the dog with only one sound stimulation. Having reached the auditory center, it will go along the beaten path to the food cortical center, and from there to the food center of the medulla oblongata. Then it will pass along the motor-secretory nerve to the salivary gland and cause salivation in the absence of a food unconditioned stimulus. Consequently, as a result of the development of a conditioned reflex to any stimulus, the latter acquires the value of a signal for the manifestation of a certain reflex. Thanks to this, the body is prepared in advance for food intake (as was the case in the described case) and its adaptability to the environment increases.

According to the described scheme, conditioned reflexes are developed to any stimulus. The same principle underlies the training of a dog to perform any action on command during the training process. For example, in order to teach a dog to sit on command, you need to form a conditioned reflex to this command, using a stimulus that would evoke an unconditioned sitting reflex in the dog. To do this, the trainer, pronouncing the command, presses his hand firmly on the dog’s croup; showing a protective reflex, the dog lowers its butt and sits down. After a number of such repeated combinations of commands with pressing on the croup, the dog will develop a conditioned reflex to the command, and it will sit down according to one order from the trainer.

Most of the actions that a dog learns to perform during training based on conditioned signals from the trainer differ from ordinary conditioned reflexes (for example, the conditioned salivation reflex) in their complexity. Research has shown that these actions are complex motor reactions consisting of a system of reflexes. Such systems of reflexes are usually called skills. Skills are complex conditioned reflexes, in contrast to instincts, which are complex unconditioned reflexes.

Skills are developed through long-term exercise, which consists of a series of repeated actions. During the exercise, new temporary connections are formed, which are gradually differentiated and refined. The result is greater precision in the execution of the skills required to use the dog. Each skill is practiced during the training process.

A training technique is a set of sequential actions by the trainer aimed at developing a certain skill in the dog.

Each technique is practiced by the trainer in a certain sequence. First, the trainer develops an initial conditioned reflex in the dog to a command or gesture based on unconditioned stimuli. Then the initially developed conditioned reflex becomes more complex and becomes a skill. And finally, the skill developed by the dog is reinforced in the process of working in various conditions.

When developing conditioned reflexes in dogs, they use unconditional And conditional irritants. The former cause the manifestation of the necessary unconditioned reflex, the latter are stimuli to which conditioned reflexes are developed.

By influencing the dog with an unconditioned stimulus, the trainer causes an unconditioned reflex (food, defensive, etc.). The use of a conditioned stimulus allows you to educate conditioned reflex.

Conditioned stimuli are, for example, commands, etc. Mechanical and food stimuli are used as the main unconditioned stimuli when training dogs according to the general course. They cause the manifestation of various reflexes that protect the animal from adverse influences (defensive reflex) or obtain food (food reflex). Mechanical and food stimuli encourage the dog to perform a certain action and reinforce the produced conditioned reflexes.

Let us dwell in some more detail on the characteristics of mechanical unconditioned stimuli, which include stroking, hand pressure, jerking with a leash, exposure to a strict collar and, as an exception, blows with a whip. The choice of the nature and strength of the mechanical stimulus during training depends on the characteristics of the technique being practiced and the characteristics of the dog’s nervous system. It is known, for example, that to reinforce the actions performed by a dog, a mechanical stimulus is used in the form of stroking. Stroking is accompanied by slight tactile irritations of the skin, causing a positive reaction in the dog (caressing, yelping, wagging the tail). But the same hand of the trainer can become an irritant that causes an unconditioned landing reflex. In this case, the trainer presses hard on the dog’s croup, which causes irritation not only of the skin, but also of the croup muscles and the occurrence of a musculocutaneous reflex. Here the mechanical stimulus has a different meaning and is associated with the manifestation of a positional reflex in the dog - sitting. Finally, the same hand of the trainer, striking the dog with a whip, causes not only musculocutaneous, but also painful irritations, which are accompanied by the manifestation of a defensive reflex in a passive form. Consequently, the nature of the impact of a mechanical stimulus is not the same in different cases, and the task of the trainer is to skillfully apply the appropriate stimulus.

It must be remembered that excessive use of high-power mechanical irritations during training causes in many dogs a long-term depressed state (state of inhibition), which is sometimes even accompanied by the manifestation of a passive-defensive reaction by the trainer. This should be avoided.

When training according to a special course (guard, protective guard, search and other services), mechanical stimuli are used to evoke an active defensive reflex in the dog (development of anger). For this purpose, a straw cord or flexible rod is recommended as an irritant, which will not cause the animal excessively painful irritation. Unconditioned food stimuli (treats) used in training include finely chopped boiled meat, bread, bread crackers, biscuits, etc. A food unconditioned stimulus, like a mechanical stimulus, is necessary in order to evoke in the dog what is initially desired by the trainer. action and reinforce the action that the dog performed at the request of the trainer. When a dog performs, for example, sitting or laying down under the influence of a food stimulus or while training it to approach on command, a treat not only causes the initial action of the dog, but also reinforces the action that it performed at the command of the trainer. In other cases, treats are used only to reinforce the dog’s actions performed under the influence of various mechanical stimuli.

When training, a treat must be given in such a way that the dog is willing to receive it, i.e., so that it shows food arousal to the treat. There are two ways to achieve this. Firstly, by conducting a lesson before feeding or two to four hours after it, and secondly, by giving treats in small pieces. In this case, you should first show the treat and, as it were, tease the dog. As a result, her food excitability will increase () and the strength of the influence of the food stimulus will increase. The treat should be given to the dog only after it has completed the required action.

The main conditioned stimuli to which certain conditioned reflexes are developed during the training process are commands and gestures. A command is a sound stimulus, which is a strictly defined word assigned to each training technique. For example, a command is used to call a dog to the trainer, a command is for boarding, a command is for protecting a thing, a command is for tracking, etc. As commands, you should choose short, clear-sounding words and avoid words that are similar to each other. Each command is a complex sound stimulus for the dog. A certain combination of sounds distinguishes one command from another.

When giving commands, intonation is also of great importance. In training, there are three intonations when using commands: commanding (usual), affectionate or encouraging, and threatening. A command in a normal or commanding intonation is pronounced quite loudly, with a touch of demand; a command in a threatening intonation is pronounced sharply, sternly and in a raised tone. It must be remembered that the importance of intonation in training is very high, since dogs have a finely developed auditory analyzer, thanks to which they can distinguish the slightest changes in tone. In accordance with this, they form conditioned reflexes to different intonations of a voice giving the same command. This allows the trainer, if necessary, to increase the impact of the command on the dog. To do this, the dog is taught to distinguish (differentiate) different intonations well. For example, when developing a conditioned reflex to a command given in a commanding intonation, the trainer pronounces the command in a normal tone and reinforces it with a gentle tug of the leash. After repeated repetition of this combination, the dog will establish a conditioned reflex and, on command, it will always walk at the trainer’s feet. If, after establishing a conditioned reflex to a command, the dog does not perform this action, then the command must be pronounced in a threatening intonation, accompanied by a stronger jerk of the leash. As a result of such reinforcement of the same command, pronounced with different intonations and accompanied by unconditioned stimuli of different strengths, the dog will learn to clearly distinguish the meaning of intonation.

An affectionate, encouraging intonation, in which an exclamation should always be uttered, is reinforced in the dog by exposure to food and tactile-skin stimuli.

The commands spoken in words and assigned to each of the training techniques cannot be changed under any circumstances. This cannot be done for two reasons. Firstly, each command is a sound stimulus, to which a certain conditioned reflex is established during the training process. The more constant and monotonous the command, the faster the necessary conditioned reflex is established on the command. Secondly, consistency and uniformity of commands is very important in cases where a trained dog is transferred to another trainer. If the dog's training was carried out correctly, then the new trainer only needs to accustom the dog to himself, and it will flawlessly follow commands.

Thus, the uniformity and consistency of commands greatly facilitates the use of dogs. Each command must be pronounced accurately, clearly, in a loud enough voice, with the correct emphasis.

When working with a dog whose conditioned reflexes to commands are sufficiently fixed, you should adhere to the following rules:

1. Initially, always use the command in an orderly, normal intonation.

2. If the dog does not perform the action, repeat the command in a threatening intonation. Secondary repetition of the command in a threatening intonation must be accompanied by the use of an unconditional stimulus (coercion). It should be remembered that repeated repetition of the same command (if the dog does not execute it), not reinforced by the corresponding unconditioned stimulus, leads to the extinction of the conditioned reflex to this command. Each action of the dog, performed at the command of the trainer, must be reinforced by giving a treat, stroking or exclamation.

As sound conditioned stimuli when training dogs, in addition to verbal commands, various sound signals are used, for example a whistle, etc. Sound signals can usually be used successfully to control your dog's actions from a distance, for example, to call a dog to the trainer.

As visual conditioned stimuli in dog training Gestures are used.

A gesture is a specific movement of the trainer’s hand, established for each technique. Most often, commands are replaced with gestures when controlling a dog from a distance, in reconnaissance or ambush, during group exercises, etc.

A gesture as a conditioned stimulus has the meaning of a command for a dog, only not of an auditory, but of a visual nature.

Coercion, encouragement and prohibition are the main training factors that ensure control of the dog’s behavior and trouble-free performance of all actions required of it.

By coercion it is customary to understand the totality of actions of the trainer, the dog to show certain reflexes. Reinforcement is a way to reinforce desired actions (conditioned reflexes - skills) in a dog. By prohibition we mean the dog stopping actions that are undesirable for the trainer.

The trainer must be able to use each of the listed factors correctly and in a timely manner.

Coercion can be used in the form of various influences on the dog's nervous system. This includes, first of all, the use of unconditioned stimuli that are more powerful than those usually used (a strong jerk with a leash, significant pressure on any part of the dog’s body, the impact of a strict collar, a blow with a whip, etc.). Using coercion as an unconditional stimulus, the trainer causes the dog to display various reflexes directly related to the instinct of self-defense.

Coercion should be used in cases where it is necessary to increase the pressure on the dog in order to achieve the desired action. For example, it must be used in the process of training most dogs of a highly excitable type when practicing a technique. In this case, coercion will be a jerk of the leash through a strict collar. Coercion is primarily one of the auxiliary influences of the trainer on the dog in cases where it is necessary to increase the influence on the dog.

It is especially important to use coercion when controlling a dog’s behavior, during the period of consolidation of skills, when the dog learns to perform skills in increasingly difficult conditions. Naturally, at this time the dog can be easily and often distracted by strong stimuli. The failure-free performance of one or another skill may also be disrupted as a result of changes in the state of the dog’s body (hunger, sexual arousal, lethargy, absence, etc.). In all cases except those described, a command given in a threatening intonation (conditional coercion) can be successfully used as coercion.

The best results can be achieved when coercion is correctly combined with encouragement, which is the basis contrast training method. In this case, coercion is used as a factor forcing the dog to perform a certain action, and encouragement (giving a treat, smoothing, exclamation) - to secure correctly performed action.

Reinforcement is a set of actions by the trainer used to reinforce the action performed by the dog. In other words, encouragement is a way of reinforcing conditioned reflexes that make up a particular skill.

As a reward, they use a treat (unconditioned food stimulus), affection - stroking the dog (tactile-skin stimulus) and, finally, an exclamation (conditioned stimulus). When initially establishing a conditioned reflex to a command and practicing most general training techniques, giving treats and smoothing the dog, always accompanied by an exclamation, are of greatest importance. As a result, the exclamation quickly acquires the meaning of a conditioned stimulus to reward the dog.

After a persistent conditioned reflex to a sound stimulus has been established, the exclamation can be used as a conditioned reward, without accompanying it with giving treats and stroking. To avoid extinction of the conditioned reflex to an exclamation, this conditioned stimulus should be periodically accompanied by unconditioned reinforcement (treats, smoothing).

Reinforcement is not limited to the use of these unconditioned and conditioned stimuli. In some special training techniques, the reward will be the satisfaction of a specific biological need of the animal.

Thus, when practicing a technique that the dog accepts on command, the reward will be to satisfy the biological need of the dog’s body to move and to demonstrate the freedom reflex.

During the development of the dog's malice and the development of defensive skills, the role of encouragement takes on the role of anger (with the permission of the trainer, the dog grabs and thrashes the attacking helper). At the same time, it is recommended to use conditional reinforcement - an exclamation.

Reward can also be used as one of the factors that induces the dog to perform some action or causes an enhanced manifestation of an already established conditioned reflex. For example, when calling a dog that is in a free state, the trainer can enhance the effect of the command by combining this command with an exclamation. This use of exclamation is of particular importance in cases where the dog exhibits, when approaching the trainer, or is in a state of consistent inhibition, which arose under the influence of a previously given command, for example a command.

Inhibition as a training factor is intended to stop the dog's unwanted actions. As a prohibition, a strong mechanical stimulus is used (a strong jerk with a leash, a strict collar, a blow with a whip) in combination with a sound stimulus (command). As a result of repeated combinations, a strong reflex is established on the command and it acquires the value of a conditioned brake. In the process of developing a conditioned reflex to the command, the use of a strong mechanical stimulus must coincide with the moment the dog performs an undesirable action. In the future, the command is used not only to suppress unwanted actions of the dog, but also to prevent them. Under no circumstances should the command be abused. Being a strong inhibitory stimulus, it can cause the phenomenon of sequential inhibition. For example, a dog may experience inhibition in their approach skills, obstacle skills, etc. if they follow a command. In addition, with frequent repetition of a command that is not reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, its effect on the dog gradually weakens (extinction of the conditioned reflex develops). Therefore, as a rule, if it is possible to use one or another basic command, enhancing its effect on the dog with a threatening intonation, then you should avoid using the command.

Imagine such a case. The trainer is at a distance from the dog and gives a command. At this moment, some distracting stimulus appeared in front of the dog. As a result, the dog, without leaving its place, is distracted (shows an indicative reaction). What should the trainer do? He must apply not the command, but command, but in a threatening intonation. If the dog, as a result of distraction, runs towards the distracting stimulus, then a command will need to be used here.

The command must take into account all unwanted distractions and actions of the dog causing the phenomenon external braking. In this case, the click is, as it were, knocked out by a wedge, that is, the action of one stimulus is inhibited by the action of another, stronger stimulus.

The main tasks of the trainer are to get the dog to perform the desired action (cause the manifestation of the corresponding unconditioned reflex), as well as to develop and consolidate a conditioned reflex to a certain stimulus (sound command or gesture). To achieve this, training uses certain methods and techniques to influence the dog.

There are four main methods of training: taste-reward, mechanical, contrast, imitative.

Taste-reward training method is that the stimulus that induces the dog to perform the desired action is a food stimulus. In this case, the sight and smell of a food stimulus is used to induce the dog to perform the desired action, and the giving of a treat is used to reinforce the action performed.

The taste-reward training method is used when practicing many general and special training techniques. An ardent supporter and promoter of this method was the famous Soviet trainer V.L. Durov, who believed that training should be based on the principle of satisfying a certain biological need of the animal and, above all, the need for food.

Indeed, the taste-reward training method has a number of positive aspects. With its help, the dog quickly develops most of its conditioned reflexes. A large dog is observed in performing the skills developed in this way, contact with the trainer is strengthened, and a large dog appears.

However, along with this taste-based training method, it also has certain disadvantages. It does not ensure trouble-free execution of techniques, especially in the presence of distracting stimuli; performance of necessary actions may weaken or disappear during the period of satiety of the animal; It is impossible to develop all the necessary skills using this method alone.

The essence of the mechanical training method consists in the fact that various mechanical stimuli are used as an unconditioned stimulus, causing a protective defensive reflex in the dog (for example, the sitting reflex when pressing a hand on the dog’s croup). In this case, the mechanical stimulus not only causes the initial action in the dog (unconditioned reflex), but is also used to reinforce the conditioned reflex (smoothing). A characteristic feature of the training method under consideration is that in this case the dog performs the actions desired by the trainer under compulsion.

The positive side of the mechanical training method is that all actions are firmly fixed and are performed reliably by the dog in familiar conditions.

The negative aspects of the mechanical training method include the fact that its frequent use causes in some dogs a depressed inhibitory state and the manifestation of a distrustful attitude towards the trainer (in dogs with a passive-defensive reaction this manifests itself in the form of fear and cowardice; angry dogs try to bite the trainer). It is impossible to develop all the necessary skills using this method alone.

The mechanical method is of great importance in the process of training for some special services. Thus, dog training for guard, protective guard and search services is mainly based on the use of mechanical stimuli (movements of an assistant teasing the dog, striking, etc.). In this case, the use of this method is designed to excite a defensive reaction in the dog in an active-defensive form.

Contrast method is the main method of training service dogs. The essence of this method is a certain combination of mechanical and rewarding effects on the dog (giving treats, stroking, command). In this case, mechanical stimuli are used to induce the dog to perform desired actions, and rewarding stimuli are used to reinforce these actions. For example, to teach a dog to perform a landing using the contrast method, the trainer proceeds as follows. Holding the dog on a short leash at his left leg in a standing position, the trainer gives a command. After this, with his left hand he presses on the dog’s croup, pressing it down, and with his right hand he jerks the leash upward. After such exposure to an unconditioned mechanical stimulus, the dog lands. The trainer reinforces this action by giving treats and smoothing, as a result the dog establishes a conditioned reflex to the command.

This method of training has the advantages of taste-reward and mechanical methods.

The advantage of the contrast method; quick and persistent consolidation of conditioned reflexes to certain commands; clear and willing execution by the dog of all actions practiced by this method due to the presence of (food arousal); maintaining and strengthening contact between the trainer and the dog; failure-free execution by the dog of practiced actions in difficult conditions (in the presence of distractions, etc.).

Experience has shown that the contrast method speeds up the training process and ensures trouble-free operation of the dog in various environmental conditions. This is the main value of the contrast method.

Imitative method used in dog training as an auxiliary method. For example, with the development of viciousness and the consolidation of barking in a guard dog, the use of an angry, good-barking dog can stimulate the manifestation of viciousness in a less excitable and poor-barking dog. Practicing overcoming obstacles can also be done by imitation. This method can be especially widely used in the practice of raising puppies.

Nervous activity is based on two processes - excitation and inhibition.

Excitation of certain areas of the nerve centers of the central nervous system is manifested in the corresponding actions (reflexes) of the dog. For example, when exposed to a sound stimulus, the dog listens, when a smell appears, it sniffs, etc. Most conditioned reflexes are developed in the dog during the training process based on the excitation process. These reflexes are called positive conditioned reflexes.

Inhibition is an active process of nervous activity, opposite to excitation and causing a delay in reflexes. Conditioned reflexes that are developed in a dog based on the use of the inhibitory process are called inhibitory, or negative. A striking example of such a reflex is the prohibition of unwanted actions of a dog on command.

Academician Pavlov established certain patterns in the manifestation of these processes, which are of great importance for training. These patterns are as follows. If a focus of excitation or inhibition arises in any part of the cerebral cortex, then excitation or inhibition will certainly first spread from the point of its origin, capturing neighboring areas of the cortex ( irradiation process). For example, in order to get a dog to bark, the trainer may tie it up and walk away. The departure of the trainer will greatly excite the dog (irradiation of excitement) and it will begin to bark.

Concentration The opposite phenomenon is called when excitation or inhibition, on the contrary, is concentrated in a certain area of ​​the nervous system. Thanks to this, for example, after several repetitions, the dog learns to vocalize only on command, without side effects and general excitement.

The occurrence in the cerebral cortex of a process that is opposite in its meaning to the one that initially arose is called by induction (positive induction). For example, after a dog has been teased strongly, causing the activation of an active-defensive reflex, it can eat food more greedily, etc. But the opposite phenomenon is also possible, when the stimulation of one reflex causes inhibition of another ( negative induction). Thus, when the orienting reflex appears, the dog often stops responding to the trainer’s commands.

The trainer must always take into account the phenomenon of inhibition in the dog’s nervous activity. Braking manifests itself in a delay of one or another reflex and may be conditional, or active, and unconditional, or passive. Active inhibition occurs in dogs during the training process. The appearance of this type of inhibition primarily depends on the actions of the trainer.

The following types of active inhibition are distinguished: extinction, differentiation and delay (Fig. 24).

Extinction inhibition must be taken into account by the trainer from the very beginning of training. As already indicated, for the formation of a conditioned reflex it is necessary to reinforce the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one. If such reinforcement is absent or applied irregularly, then the conditioned reflex to a command or gesture may weaken and disappear. This phenomenon is called extinction of the conditioned reflex, and the inhibition itself is extinct. From here it is clear why, in order to strengthen conditioned reflexes, it is always necessary to reward the dog for correctly performed actions, and when the conditioned reflex weakens, again use the influence of the unconditioned stimulus, on the basis of which this conditioned reflex was formed.

Extinction of conditioned reflexes can occur if practical training with a dog is not carried out regularly, and also in the case when there are no training sessions with already trained dogs.

For dog training, the so-called differentiation, or discriminative, inhibition, which ensures that the dog clearly distinguishes individual conditioned stimuli and clearly performs the required actions according to commands, gestures and other signals. Just like extinction inhibition, differentiation inhibition does not arise immediately, but develops gradually. The manifestation of this type of inhibition primarily depends on the correct actions of the trainer. It is known that during the initial development of a conditioned reflex to any command (conditioned stimulus) in the dog’s nervous center (for example, in the auditory center), the excitation process predominates, which easily spreads throughout the cerebral cortex ( irradiation) and causes increased excitability. As a result, the dog's central nervous system develops process so-called generalization- generalizations of various similar stimuli, and the dog mixes these stimuli. Therefore, during initial training, many dogs make erroneous actions and confuse commands and gestures: they sit down on command, approach the trainer using a laying down gesture, etc.

To stop this phenomenon, it is necessary to use differential inhibition. To do this, all the dog’s actions that correspond to the given command must be reinforced by giving treats and exclamations, and actions that do not correspond to the given command must be left without reinforcement. As a result of such actions by the trainer, the dog will develop inhibition to all stimuli that are not directly related to this skill. The conditioned reflex to the corresponding command will become more and more strong and the dog will begin to clearly distinguish the meaning of all kinds of commands and gestures. This will be possible because in the dog’s nervous system there will be a process of concentration (concentration) of excitation to those nerve cells of the cerebral cortex that are directly related to this conditioned reflex.

It should be remembered that the speed of development of differentiation (discrimination) of various conditioned stimuli (commands) depends during training and on their correct reinforcement with such unconditioned stimuli that cause the dog to display a certain unconditioned reflex. For example, a command is reinforced by a jerk of the leash, returning the dog to the trainer’s leg, a command by excitation of an active-defensive reflex, etc. As a result, each command will be associated with a specific reflex and will acquire the meaning of a signal for the dog to perform a certain action. As a result, the dog will clearly distinguish (differentiate) the meaning of commands.

The third type of conditioned inhibition is delayed braking, which is also successfully used in dog training. This type of inhibition occurs in cases where the influence of a conditioned stimulus on a dog is not immediately accompanied by the action of an unconditioned stimulus and the latter is used for reinforcement after a certain period of time (from several seconds to several minutes). As a result of such reinforcement, the manifestation of the conditioned reflex is delayed and coincides with the onset of the unconditioned stimulus.

Delayed inhibition is the basis for developing endurance in a dog in various techniques of the general training course. The dog's self-control is an inhibitory conditioned reflex. This reflex is developed under such conditions. First, the trainer establishes a positive reflex to some command, for example, to a command in which the dog must take a certain position. As soon as this conditioned reflex is developed and the dog, at the command of the trainer, takes the required position, reinforced by encouragement, the trainer proceeds to practicing endurance. This is done as follows. The trainer pronounces the command and, after executing the command, gives the dog a treat, but not immediately, but after a few seconds, thereby forcing the sitting dog to expect to receive the treat. As a result, delayed inhibition begins to develop in the dog’s nervous system, which delays the manifestation of the food reflex for several seconds after the command is given.

Gradually, the giving of a treat or other encouragement (smoothing, exclamation) is increasingly delayed after the command is given and the endurance is increased to several minutes.

From what has been said it is clear that skillful use active braking in the process of training dogs is a very important condition that ensures stability and clarity in the development of the necessary skills.

In contrast to conditioned active inhibition, unconditional - passive inhibition does not require development, as it occurs when the dog’s nervous system is exposed to certain irritants. For example, a dog that heard a shot for the first time may experience inhibition of all motor conditioned reflexes that were set to commands and gestures. This type of braking is called external braking. The trainer most often encounters this type of inhibition in the initial period of training.

Typically, the cause of external inhibition in dogs is the orienting reflex. While exhibiting an orienting reflex, the dog is distracted (listens to an extraneous sound, sniffs intensely at an unfamiliar smell, or looks towards a new object) and does not perform the actions required of it. In most cases, the external inhibition associated with the orienting reaction is temporary and stops at the moment when the dog gets used to the new stimulus. The orienting reflex is characterized not only by the fact that it very easily arises when the dog is exposed to various stimuli that are new to it. It is also capable of easily disappearing (fading away) as soon as the dog becomes familiar with this stimulus and approaches it.

But it happens that external inhibition turns out to be more persistent. This is possible in cases where it occurs in a dog as a result of the manifestation of a passive defensive reflex. Most often, this phenomenon is observed in those young dogs that still have signs of the primary natural caution reflex (puppy cowardice). In such cases, the best way to deal with external inhibition would be to consistently and systematically familiarize the dog with surrounding stimuli, switching it to the easily fading indicative reflex.

In dogs that have reached puberty, the cause of the manifestation of external inhibition is often the sexual reflex (especially in males near an empty bitch). In this case, the bitch is a distracting stimulus that causes inhibition in the male of all reactions and reflexes that are not related to the manifestation of the sexual reflex. Here you can apply only one way of fighting: to promptly identify the empty bitch and isolate her.

Research by Academician Pavlov and his students showed that the phenomenon of external inhibition is based on the process negative induction.

External inhibition and distraction can also occur in dogs under the influence of internal stimuli. So, if the dog’s bladder is full, inhibition of all motor reflexes that are not related to the nervous center of urination may occur, and it will stop following commands. Therefore, it is very important to walk your dogs before starting practical classes.

External inhibition occurs in all cases when the dog is exposed to a stimulus of greater force than the trainer and his commands or gestures. Therefore, the trainer should always strive to have a greater impact on the dog than distracting stimuli. This is achieved not only by establishing the correct relationship between the trainer and the dog, but also by developing persistent conditioned reflexes to commands and gestures that provide control of the dog’s behavior in conditions of varying complexity.

Given this, initial training should be carried out in an environment that excludes the presence of distracting stimuli. After sufficient consolidation of all the commands necessary to control the dog’s behavior, you need to gradually complicate the training conditions by introducing stimuli. If necessary, you should skillfully use the prohibit command.

The main reason for the occurrence extreme braking is when training too much irritation of the dog’s nervous system. Such irritation can arise as a result of the action of a very strong stimulus (most often a sound one, such as a shot), as well as through the abuse of mechanical stimuli, without taking into account the individual characteristics of the animal. In this case, the dog does not comply with commands and gestures associated not only with the skill, during the development of which the trainer abused coercion, but also with other commands and gestures. This occurs as a result of irradiation - the spread of the inhibitory process from the center of its occurrence to other nerve centers.

As a result, the dog becomes depressed, lethargic, and sometimes shows distrust of the trainer and fear of him.

Excessive inhibition can also occur as a result of overstrain of the dog’s nervous system. For example, extreme inhibition often occurs during the process of practicing the technique of sampling things, if the trainer abuses the number of times the dog is sent to retrieve things during one lesson.

Extreme inhibition can also occur after prolonged training with a dog using the same training techniques. The dog will begin to show lethargy and then completely refuse to perform this action.

This point must be taken into account during the training process and be sure to diversify the skills being practiced.

Thus, in order to prevent the occurrence of excessive inhibition, you should avoid overstraining the dog’s nervous system, do not set unbearable tasks for it, and diversify the skills being practiced. If excessive inhibition occurs, you need to interrupt training with the dog for several days. During the break, its nervous system will be freed from extreme inhibition and the animal’s conditioned reflex activity will be restored.

The processes of excitation and inhibition manifest themselves differently in the nervous system of dogs.

Academician Pavlov proved through his numerous studies that the difference in the behavior of dogs is determined primarily by a certain combination of the basic properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition: the strength of irritable and inhibitory nervous processes, which constantly constitute integral nervous activity; the balance of these processes; their mobility.

I. P. Pavlov established four main types of higher nervous activity (HNA): excitable - unbalanced (choleric); balanced - mobile (sanguine); balanced - calm (phlegmatic); weak (melancholic).

Excitable dogs have a strong excitation process and weakened inhibition. There is no equilibrium between these two processes and the excitation process is predominant. Dogs of this type are distinguished by great physical activity.

However, the type of higher nervous activity cannot be determined by motor activity alone. The main significance for characterizing the type of type of dogs is their conditioned reflex activity.

In dogs of the excitable type, positive conditioned reflexes are quickly formed, while inhibitory ones, on the contrary, are developed very slowly. Therefore, dogs of this type perform well all commands associated with actions based on the process of excitation, and poorly perform commands associated with the process of inhibition (for example, a prohibiting command, holding in various positions, etc.).

In dogs of the excitable type, differentiation inhibition is weakly expressed and is difficult to train. During the initial period of training, these dogs often value various commands. But it is especially difficult to achieve differentiation from them, which requires a lot of tension in the inhibitory process, for example, when selecting a thing by smell from other things, when selecting a person from a thing, when selecting the desired trace from other traces, etc. Therefore, dogs of this type are especially difficult to train for services in which good and clear differentiation is necessary (investigative, guard, minor investigative services), which should be taken into account during selection. For services where clear differentiation is not required (guard, protective guard), dogs of the excitable type are quite suitable. Moreover, in the process of training, it is possible to achieve an increase in their inhibitory process. This is achieved by regular and systematic exercises. In dogs of excitable type, endurance should be worked out gradually, as if training and accumulating - the process of inhibition. It is recommended to start exposure from 3–5 seconds, gradually increasing it to several minutes. During initial training for sampling a thing, sampling a person from a scent, etc., you should not send the dog to sample more than one or two times; the number of sends must be increased very slowly. It is possible to complicate the track by introducing extraneous tracks and angles only after the dog clearly works on a simple track. The dog's behavior is very excitable, practicing such skills as walking next to the trainer, prohibiting on command, staying in various positions.

Balanced - agile dogs type have equal strength processes of excitation and inhibition. These processes in such dogs are very mobile (excitation is easily replaced by inhibition and vice versa), depending on the stimuli acting on the dog.

Dogs of this type are distinguished by significant motor activity. They develop positive and negative conditioned reflexes easily and are quite strong; they have good differential inhibition. Dogs of the balanced - active type are the easiest to train. Their positive and negative skills are well consolidated, they are quite active in their work, and easily switch from one action to another. When training such dogs, the contrast training method gives good results. In this case, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of consistent transition from simple to complex.

In dogs of a balanced - calm type, just like in a balanced - mobile type, the processes of excitation and inhibition manifest themselves with equal force. However, unlike dogs of the previous type, the process of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system of these dogs is inactive (one nervous process is slowly replaced by another and vice versa). These dogs have reduced motor activity; positive and negative conditioned reflexes are developed slowly, but are highly persistent; Differential inhibition arises and develops gradually and always reaches great clarity. In terms of behavior, many dogs of this type seem sedentary and lethargic. They are not easy to train, but the acquired skills turn out to be very persistent. In special work, such dogs are somewhat lethargic, but they flawlessly follow commands and are very resilient. When training dogs of this type, as well as when training dogs of the excitable type, great persistence and patience are required from the trainer.

Phlegmatic dogs It is difficult to tolerate rapid changes in the processes of excitation and inhibition. Therefore, during initial training according to the general course, you should not abuse the frequent issuance of commands. It must be remembered that for such dogs it is difficult to quickly transition from one action to another and they often need to repeat the command. During the initial period of training, you should strive to ensure that there is a sufficient interval between the moment the command is pronounced and the moment when the dog begins to perform the action. Increasing the frequency of commands to perform various actions is possible only after the dog has established a strong conditioned reflex to the commands used by the trainer. Developing endurance in different positions proceeds without difficulty. They tolerate the effects of strong mechanical stimuli quite easily, so when training, the mechanical method can be successfully used. But here, too, coercion should not be abused; It is recommended to use it only in cases where the contrast method of exposure is insufficient.

For a weak type dog characterized by weakness of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition. In this regard, dogs of this type cannot tolerate high stress on the nervous system, and their nervous activity is easily disrupted.

Among this group, one should distinguish dogs in which both nervous processes, despite weakness, are distinguished by relative mobility. Conditioned reflexes in these dogs are not consistently developed, but the dogs have a fairly clear and relatively easily occurring differential inhibition.

There are dogs in which both nervous processes are not only weak, but also inactive. Conditioned reflexes in these dogs are developed slowly and unstable, and their differential inhibition is insufficient.

It should be noted that in weak-type dogs a passive defensive reaction is often observed, but it is not considered the main sign of weakness of the nervous system, since it can also manifest itself in dogs of other types of higher nervous activity. A weak type of dog is not very suitable for training and use. Given this, it is not recommended to take them into training. If such dogs are identified during the training process, they must be culled.

The relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system of dogs of various types can be pathologically disturbed. As a result, functional disturbances in the nervous activity of animals will occur, not accompanied by visible damage to the nervous system. These are the so-called neuroses.

The external manifestation of neurosis in the behavior of dogs can be different. Some dogs in a state of neurosis are characterized by increased excitability, irritability, lose self-control, do not differentiate stimuli well, and easily become aggressive even towards the trainer. Others, on the contrary, are characterized by a depressed state, accompanied by fearfulness and distrust. Even increased intonation or a sharp call from the trainer immediately causes a prolonged state of inhibition in such dogs. In some dogs, neuroses cause a tendency to be inactive and, as a result, they almost do not perceive commands and other influences from the trainer.

Neuroses can occur in dogs as a result of overstrain of the nervous system. Overstrain of the excitation process most often occurs when the dog’s nervous system is exposed to super-strong stimuli, for example, strong sound stimuli (gunshots, explosions), if the dog has not been previously and consistently accustomed to them; as a result of abuse of coercion, etc.

Overstrain of the inhibitory process easily occurs after difficult subtle differentiations, in cases where the dog is sent to select things from many other things with a similar odor, or after working on a scent in the presence of a large number of intersecting tracks.

Neuroses can also arise as a result of a sharp change in the processes of excitation and inhibition. An example of this would be the case when the trainer forces the dog to either detain the runaway and grab him, or stop gripping. The rapid replacement of a strong inhibitory stimulus by an equally strong stimulus in this situation seems to pit the processes of inhibition and excitation against each other. A dog that is not sufficiently prepared for this may experience a breakdown in nervous activity.

In some dogs, neuroses occur frequently, in others they can hardly be induced even in an experimental setting. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the statement of I.P. Pavlov, who proved that the occurrence of neuroses depends on what type of higher nervous activity a given animal belongs to. Indeed, neuroses easily arise in dogs of extreme types - excitable and weak, and are more persistent in them. Dogs of a balanced type are resistant to neuroses.

To cure neurosis, it is recommended to temporarily stop exercising with the dog. Sometimes, for the same purpose, it is useful to transfer a sick dog to another trainer, change the conditions and place of training, and use medicinal agents (bromine, caffeine).

Dogs are trained and used in a variety of environmental conditions; Some of them make working with a dog easier, others make it more difficult. Environmental conditions include time of day, temperature, wind, soil cover, terrain, humidity, etc.

The most favorable time of day for working with a dog is early morning, when the dog is full of energy after a night's rest. In addition, early in the morning the number of distracting stimuli (strangers, animals, etc.) is not so large. The freshness of the atmosphere is also of certain importance. It is also recommended to train your dog in the evening. During the daytime hours in the hot summer, you can only work with a dog that has been gradually accustomed to working in such conditions.

Initially, training and training dogs should be done during daylight hours. This provides good control over the dog. An exception is the training of guard and guard dogs, since the dog’s alertness and protective reflexes always increase in the dark.

High and low temperatures have a great influence on the dog's body, and heat has a more negative effect on the dog's body than cold (without drafts and wind). The dog's body must be gradually adapted to high and low temperatures. Therefore, training and training dogs should begin at a temperature of 12–15° warm and not lower than 10° cold. Gradually you can move on to training at higher and lower temperatures (at 25° heat and 20° cold).

Working with a dog is significantly influenced by the direction of the wind (tailwind, headwind, side, corner) and the strength of the wind. For example, when there is a headwind, you need to quietly pronounce sound commands. This wind is favorable for the work of guard and guard dogs, as it makes it easier for them to perceive sounds and smells.

The direction and strength of the wind are extremely important for the dog's work on the scent, since the time during which the scent remains on the scent is inversely proportional to the strength of the wind. In strong winds, odor molecules quickly evaporate from the trail. With a crosswind, the odor molecules move away from the track, which leads the dog astray. A headwind forces the animal to switch to the upper sense, which also reduces the quality of work. Therefore, a tailwind is most favorable for tracking: it shifts the scent only towards the trail, which encourages the dog to use its lower sense.

It is best for a dog to follow a trail that is laid on meadow soil, especially if it is covered with dew. It will be most difficult for her to work during the day on a dusty road.

Flat terrain makes it easier to control and work the dog; strongly crossed - complicates the dog’s work.

The presence of vegetation in some cases favors the dog’s work, in others it hinders it. Odor molecules last longer on well-developed low grass cover. This makes it easier for the dog to follow the scent. Too thick tall grass and thick bushes make it difficult for the dog to move and cause it to tire more quickly. In addition, in the grass there are plants with an intoxicating odor (ledum, etc.), and, as is known, this negatively affects the higher nervous activity of the dog. Small, sparse bushes, on the contrary, contribute to the development of the dog’s search activity.

Working on very rough terrain helps develop the dog's activity, but quickly causes fatigue. Therefore, the first stages of training for the search service and the service of carrying light loads are best carried out on level ground.

Conducting dog training in populated areas always makes the work more difficult due to the presence of a large number of distracting stimuli. Therefore, it is recommended to gradually accustom the dog to such difficult conditions.

High humidity and high saturation of the air or soil with water vapor (water) contribute to the long-term preservation of the scent, and this makes the dog’s tracking work easier. Excessive humidity and rain negatively affect dogs' performance; heavy rain, for example, immediately washes away the scent of the trail.

Tracking work, the movement of a dog carrying light loads and a dog towing a skier are difficult in the presence of deep snow or thin ice crust.

The most favorable time of year for training dogs in the northern and middle regions of the USSR is the period from late April to October. However, training can be done at any time of the year; You should only avoid starting exercise in the heat.

In order to avoid the negative influence of unfavorably acting external factors, during the training process you must strictly adhere to the principle of sequential introduction of complications. For example, start classes on general techniques in a familiar environment for the dog or in conditions that provide the least amount of distracting stimuli; Work on the trail should first be carried out over a short distance, always under favorable conditions (flat terrain, tailwind, etc.). As the dog is trained, the conditions in which it works must be gradually and consistently complicated by introducing distracting stimuli and complicating the skills being practiced (increasing the running distance for a dog that carries light loads, increasing the duration of the trail and its length for a search dog, etc. ). If the dog refuses to work in difficult conditions, it is necessary to ease them somewhat.

In addition to external factors, the training of a dog is also influenced by biological factors operating in the animal’s body itself. Therefore, the general condition of the dog is very important. Any deviation from normal behavior is characterized as an abnormal condition that complicates and complicates the dog’s work.

Deviations from normal behavior can be expressed in a decrease or increase in excitability. In the first case, the dog becomes lethargic, inactive, and does not perceive commands and gestures well. The cause of this is most often some kind of disease. With general increased excitability, dogs show anxiety, excessive fussiness, and do not clearly follow commands (impaired differentiation). This phenomenon is especially often observed in females during estrus, in males during sexual arousal, and also in very hungry dogs. Having noticed abnormalities in the behavior of an animal, the trainer must find out the reasons that caused them and eliminate them. A trainer who knows his dog well will easily notice the slightest deviations from its normal state and take the necessary measures in a timely manner.

During the training process, the main factor influencing the dog’s behavior is the trainer himself, who selects and applies in the right order certain stimuli that evoke the desired reflexes in the animal. From this it is clear that the dog’s success mainly depends on how the trainer behaves with it and on the level of his training.

First of all, the trainer must have a certain theoretical background - know the basic provisions and principles of training. This will allow you to quickly solve problems that arise in your work, take into account the individual characteristics of the dog, correctly select the desired training method and methods for developing individual skills, correctly apply coercion, encouragement, prohibitions, etc. Only a theoretically trained trainer will be able to avoid patterns in work.

The actions of the trainer must always be based on practical experience: for a novice trainer - based on the experience of instructors and the best trainers, for a trainer who has already worked with dogs - based on his own practice. Imitation of novice trainers by more experienced ones is an important factor in which technical training skills are well acquired. This is why one of the effective ways to teach dog training is through demonstration.

While working with a dog, the trainer must understand its behavior well, and for this he needs to be aware of all his actions, think through their nature and sequence in advance. The slightest changes in decisions made during the training process must be strictly justified. As a rule, it is necessary to steadfastly and persistently adhere to the decision made, ensuring that the animal completes the intended task. Throughout the training with the dog, the trainer must constantly be aware of the successes achieved and mistakes made, in order to further use the positive experience and successfully eliminate shortcomings.

For training, the so-called “interest” of the dog in work is very important - its active reaction to human influences (willing execution of commands, quick reaction to any stimuli). a dog is a very favorable factor for working with it. Therefore, maintaining this condition should be a matter of special concern for the trainer. In order for the dog not to lose weight, the trainer must constantly diversify his working methods and choose a method that does not overtire the animal.

Each trainer should strive to cultivate certain character traits that contribute to successful work. First of all, he must be observant, always see how the dog perceives his influences, how he relates to him and various phenomena in the environment.

The trainer needs endurance. Without this quality, he will not be able to cope with work that requires great patience and self-control. Haste or lack of restraint can easily ruin the results of many days’ work in this case.

Such qualities as love for animals and courage are also very important for a trainer. If the trainer does not like the dog, then training with it will seem uninteresting and boring to him. A sensitive and attentive attitude towards the dog, the desire to monitor its every action will turn the trainer’s work into a very exciting activity. After all, training is not a craft, but an art that requires great love.

One of the decisive conditions for the success of training is the correct relationship between the trainer and the dog. Such relationships develop throughout the entire practical course of training, during the development of the entire system of conditioned reflexes in the dog. In this case, the general training course is of particular importance, during which the dog develops skills that subordinate its behavior to the trainer.

The correct attitude of a dog towards the trainer is characterized by its good obedience, trusting attitude towards the trainer, and lack of fear of the trainer.

The trainer is a complex, complex stimulus for the dog. He influences her primarily with his appearance (shape of clothing, height, character of movements, voice, facial expression and, finally, individual smell). All the qualitative characteristics of its trainer, which distinguish it from other people, are well and firmly established by the dog even during the period of its training.

The trainer's mistakes while working with the dog may be due to his poor theoretical training, lack of practical experience and lack of analysis of the work process.

The most common mistake is misunderstanding the dog's behavior and its actions. As a result, the trainer attributes to the dog the ability to consciously understand human speech, be conscious of his actions, etc. Such a trainer, along with using commands, begins to talk to the dog, persuades it to perform this or that technique, and even threatens it.

Such actions make it difficult to develop conditioned reflexes to the corresponding command, since the sounds of the command are mixed with other sounds (words). In addition, extraneous sound stimuli cause distraction (orienting reaction) in the dog, which inhibits the implementation of training techniques.

Another error often occurs. Let’s say that while walking without a leash, the dog was distracted by an extraneous irritant (cat, bird, another dog) and did not immediately come to the trainer’s call. To punish the dog, the trainer strikes it several times with a leash: at the moment when the dog approaches him. In the future, the dog’s approach to such a trainer will not improve, but will worsen. This will happen because the trainer has violated the basic principle of developing a conditioned reflex. The development of a conditioned reflex to a command is based, as is known, on the food reflex. Receiving a treat when approaching the trainer, the dog willingly follows this command. If, when the dog approaches, the trainer hits it, this will cause a defensive reflex, and in the future the dog will approach the trainer. In addition, she forms an unwanted connection with the leash: when she sees the leash in the hands of the trainer, she will take it.

To avoid mistakes, the trainer must study the behavior of his dog on a daily basis, find out the conditions that affect him and disrupt his work; know exactly the type of its higher nervous activity and the predominant reaction. Only with such an individual approach will training bring good results. Otherwise, it will not only have no effect, but may also spoil the dog.

As is known, the main condition for the development of a conditioned reflex is the sequential combination of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. In this case, the conditioned stimulus (commands) must precede the action of the unconditioned stimulus or act simultaneously with it.

The use of a conditioned stimulus after an unconditioned stimulus makes it very difficult to develop a conditioned reflex. If, for example, when practicing the movement of a dog at the trainer’s foot, a jerk of the leash is used before the command is given, then a conditioned reflex to the command is not developed.

A very serious mistake by a trainer is the abuse of one or another command. Having not developed a strong conditioned reflex to the command, the trainer repeats it many times without using the necessary unconditioned stimulus. This causes the dog to gradually weaken (extinct) the conditioned reflex to the command and does not allow him to achieve trouble-free and precise execution of the skill.

Unfortunately, it also happens that trainers underestimate the meaning of intonation and give all commands in the same intonation. Because of this, they lose the opportunity to use voice intonation as a very important auxiliary stimulus that enhances the effect of the command. A command, as a rule, should be given in a commanding intonation, and a threatening intonation should be used only to enhance the effect of the command. In no case should you overuse the frequent use of threatening intonation, as the dog will stop responding to it. But you should not allow an overly affectionate, undemanding attitude towards the dog: this will lead it out of subordination to the trainer.

When using treats to reward the dog for actions performed on command, one should not forget to stroke and exclamation in a gentle intonation. This will allow you to gradually limit the giving of treats and increasingly use encouragement in the form of stroking and exclamation.

A very significant mistake is the abuse of the prohibit command. It must be remembered that the command should be the most powerful conditioned inhibitory stimulus for the dog, stopping any unwanted actions. Frequent use of a command without reinforcement by an unconditioned stimulus will lead to a weakening (extinction) of the conditioned reflex to this command. Excessively frequent use of a command reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (a strong jerk of the leash, a tight collar, a blow with a whip) will cause the inhibition process to irradiate in the dog’s nervous system. As a result, the dog will develop a long-term depressed state, which will inhibit the manifestation of all skills and disrupt the correct contact between the trainer and the dog.

Therefore, where possible, it is recommended to use any other appropriate command in place of the command. Let's illustrate this with an example. Let’s assume that during a general training course, a dog, distracted by an extraneous stimulus, tries to independently change its body position (stand up from a sitting or laying position, run towards the stimulus that attracts it). What should the trainer do in these cases? He must use a command that corresponds to the action the dog is trying to avoid or change.

One of the biggest mistakes of a trainer is excessive haste in training and, as a result, unclear practice and consolidation of skills. As a result, the dog does not develop stable conditioned reflexes to the command and the trainer is not able to control its behavior (especially in difficult conditions) and successfully carry out further work.

Experience shows that skills learned in a dog cannot be repeated in the same sequence. Otherwise, the dog will form a strong conditioned reflex connection to a certain system of actions (stereotype) and the dog will no longer obey the trainer.

If, for example, you constantly let a dog overcome obstacles in the same sequence, then it will firmly follow this sequence and will overcome all the obstacles one after another, without stopping in front of each of them.

As a result of erroneous actions of the trainer and his incorrect approach to the dog, its higher nervous activity may be disrupted. During the training process, these disorders most often manifest themselves in dogs in the form of neuroses and unwanted relationships (see previous text).

Unlike the neuroses described in the book, an unwanted relationship cannot be considered as a pathological state of nervous activity. Unwanted communication- this is a conditioned reflex that arose in the dog, in addition to the desire of the trainer, as a result of mistakes he made. Unwanted connections have a very harmful effect on working with a dog: they make training difficult, and in the future create great obstacles during the service use of dogs.

Let's look at the causes of the most common unwanted relationships in dogs.

When training according to the general course, it is necessary to accustom the dog to clearly perform all actions separately according to commands and gestures. Accustoming to gestures is most often carried out on the basis of previously established sound commands. But such a combination of commands and gestures should only happen at the beginning of training. Then sound commands and gestures should be used separately. However, many novice trainers have been combining gestures with sound commands for a long time. Naturally, later, when the command and gesture need to be used separately, the dog will refuse to carry them out. This will happen because she forms an unwanted connection to perform actions only in response to a complex stimulus (sound command plus gesture).

If, with the development of viciousness in dogs, helpers are always dressed in training robes, then the dog will develop an unwanted connection to robes: it will only attack people wearing training robes and chase only them.

In cases where practical training is carried out for a long time in the same environment, the dog develops an unwanted connection to the environment. As a result, in a different environment, in a new place for it, the dog will refuse to comply with the trainer’s demands.

To avoid the occurrence of unwanted connections in a dog, the trainer must carefully analyze all the techniques and influences used; change the classroom environment in which the unwanted connection arose and eliminate the irritants that caused it; stop practical training with the dog using certain techniques until the conditioned reflex to the unwanted connection fades.

Unconditioned reflexes are the body's responses to external and internal stimuli that manifest themselves in the form of automatic actions. They are characteristic of this type of animal and appear either immediately after birth, or as the neuromuscular and endocrine systems of the animal develop (movement reflexes, sexual reflexes). A puppy, for example, is born capable of finding the udder's teat, secreting saliva when food enters its mouth, etc.

An animal does not need to be trained to exhibit unconditioned reflexes; it is born with ready-made reflex mechanisms that are persistently passed on by inheritance.

In dogs, it is customary to distinguish four main unconditioned reflexes: food, sexual, defensive and indicative.

Consequently, innate reflexes are aimed at providing the basic vital needs of the animal’s body, at preserving the individual and the species. For example, a feeling of hunger causes a dog to crave food; in anticipation of danger, the animal shows increased alertness, etc. The defensive reflex associated with self-defense manifests itself in an active (offensive) or passive (retreat) form.

The unconditioned reflex is carried out by a simple so-called reflex arc. The reflex arc is the path along which excitation comes from the perceiving nerve cells (receptors) along the sensory nerve to the central nervous system and is directed from it along the motor nerve to the working organ that will respond to irritation. This is the diagram of a reflex arc, expressing a simple response to stimulation.

The food reflex is an attraction to food. It occurs as a result of very complex reactions within the body. A lack of nutrients causes a change in the chemical composition of the blood, through which the nervous system and glands involved in digestion are nourished. A huge chain of reactions arises, which manifests itself in the fact of grasping food. This reaction manifests itself differently depending on the degree of hunger and the characteristics of the individual animal. In a greedy dog, the food reaction is strongly expressed, all processes occur with great speed and activity, while in another dog these manifestations are less pronounced.

The defensive reflex is the animal’s readiness for defense, active or passive. This is a reaction that mobilizes the forces of the body and all its systems: muscles, cardiovascular system, etc. to resistance. A dog entering into active defense must defeat the enemy or leave the fight with its life saved. Cowardly dogs most often use passive defense, trying to escape from danger.

The orientation reflex manifests itself in the same way as the act of preserving life from dangerous environmental phenomena: seeing, listening, feeling are very important means of protection. A dog will not climb into a fire, seeing and feeling it, it will not stay and will not enter a suffocating atmosphere if it senses a foreign smell.

The sexual reflex manifests itself with great activity. Sexual desire can activate the defensive reflex, suppress the indicative reflex, etc. It is known that in the fight for a female, males sometimes neglect danger, which in normal times would cause a defensive or indicative reflex. Attraction to the female is manifested in the fact that the male refuses to obey the man; In the presence of a female dog in heat, the male dog should not be forced to perform any exercise.

In the cerebral cortex, the so-called sexual dominant is created - the dominant focus of excitation. The peculiarity of the dominant is that it inhibits the implementation of reflexes of other centers and enhances its excitation due to other, even extraneous, impulses going to the central nervous system.

We named four unconditioned reflexes because the dog trainer encounters them most often in practice. Understanding these reflexes determines the approach to animals and the possibilities for their learning.

In the life of an organism, these phenomena are more numerous and varied.

For example, a dog was bitten by an insect. Painful irritation, perceived by sensitive cells - receptors located in the skin, is transmitted to the central nervous system, from it a signal goes along the motor nerve to the muscle, which, based on this signal, will contract and scare away the insect - this is a defensive reaction.

Another example: an overfilled bladder causes irritation, and in response, the urination reflex occurs. In a word, no matter what actions of an animal we observe, they are always responses to irritation.

Any irritation affects the functional state of the entire nervous system: in some areas irritation causes excitation, in others it causes inhibition. Therefore, the reflex is not an isolated act, but a complex reaction of the entire organism.

It is very important to know the conditions under which changes in unconditioned reflexes are possible under the influence of the environment. Practitioners know of a case where two litters of puppies were divided into two groups, raised in different conditions. One group of puppies was raised freely among a variety of external conditions, the other in a monotonous, calm environment. As a result of this experiment, it turned out that dogs raised in a monotonous favorable external environment showed a passive defensive reaction (cowardice). The same fact is confirmed by Doctor of Biological Sciences L.V. Krushinsky. Based on the collected material, he believes that dogs raised in kennels, under conditions of group housing and care, have a less pronounced active-defensive reaction than dogs raised in individual conditions. But even in dogs raised in the same conditions, defensive reactions can manifest themselves differently. This may depend on congenital characteristics inherited from parents. In service dog breeding, it is not recommended to use animals with a passive defensive reaction as breeders.

In addition, dogs may have reflexes that are unique to a given breed; for example, a gun dog makes a stance when it detects a bird; a hound dog follows the trail of the beast, barking.

Unconditioned reflexes, as the basis for the formation of conditioned ones, are important when training dogs; it is the foundation on which learning is built. But unconditioned reflexes alone do not provide the entire complex connection of the animal with the external environment.

Additional reactions are required for normal existence. I. P. Pavlov called such additional reactions conditioned reflexes.

3.7.2. Passive defensive behavior

In the process of evolution, different forms of behavior have arisen, each of which has important adaptive significance. One of them is passive-defensive behavior or, as it was called in Pavlov’s laboratories, the “biological caution reflex,” a self-protective mechanism that is replaced by exploratory behavior as one becomes familiar with the external environment. It is essential for adaptation to the action of unfamiliar stimuli and, with moderate manifestations, cannot be attributed to pathology. However, it is bordered by a high level of inhibition and the development of widespread sleep inhibition. In these cases, it is difficult to use the animal for work that requires a good orientation reaction and weakly expressed passive-defensive behavior. These qualities should be inherent in dogs of many breeds (shepherds, Airedales, Dobermans, pointers, St. Bernards, etc.). At the same time, their manifestation is determined not only by the genotype, but also by the conditions of upbringing. Optimal care for your puppy in the early stages of life deserves special attention. Negative effects may not immediately affect the behavior of the animal, but appear after a long time. Thus, in puppies exposed to stressful influences at one month of age, at six months of age passive-defensive behavior sharply manifests itself, slowing down the development of food-procuring skills. With the help of pharmacological interventions, this behavior can be corrected.

In particular, in the above case, such a correction can be made by introducing metamizil, a substance that reduces the content of acetylcholine in the brain and thereby reduces fear. In this way, it is possible to reduce the level of passive defensive reactions and significantly speed up the learning process. The same effect can be achieved by using other drugs that have a sedative (tranquilizing) effect.

It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of animals’ responses to certain stimuli at different periods of development. Weak defensive reactions to sharp stimuli are already observed in newborn puppies (having smelled ammonia or acetic acid, the puppy becomes restless, turns its head away, and whines). Such reactions were probably observed by many breeders when they lubricated the wounds of puppies with iodine or alcohol. Puppies aged 15-25 days require special attention when the color of the indicative reaction changes - it is joined by elements of passive defensive behavior, accompanied by defecation and urination. This type of response to unexpected sounds, light, smells, vestibular and tactile stimulation occurs in almost all puppies before the 40-45th day of life.

The biological significance of including passive-defensive elements in orientation-exploratory behavior is enormous. By the end of the first month of a puppy’s life, its range of vital activity expands. We rarely think about how many dangers await a puppy in the most ordinary environment if his actions were completely random. If previously the puppy was under the protection of its mother, now it is faced with new stimuli, the correct and quick response to which is still difficult due to the imperfection of the sensory organs and motor system, as well as the lack of sufficient life experience. Thanks to the presence of passive-defensive behavior, the puppy avoids many dangers. So, during walks, when there is a sudden horn of a car, headlights, the cry of a bird, or a sharp clap, the puppy usually stops moving and presses against the ground or the owner’s leg. This behavior is normal and does not require pharmacological correction. Puppy shyness should not be confused with cowardice. During this period of development, you need to be patient with the puppy, do not frighten him with a shout, do not pull the leash, and encourage the puppy with affection.

The further development of passive-defensive behavior largely depends on the conditions in which the puppy is raised. Its level decreases significantly in an “enriched” external environment (communication with peers, familiarity with new objects, phenomena, etc.). In the absence of sufficient stimuli (in isolation), the passive defensive reflex is strengthened and can persist throughout life.

From the 40-45th day to 3-4 months (a critical period called the period of “socialization” by the American scientist J. Scott), exploratory behavior reaches its maximum. With proper upbringing, elements of passive-defensive behavior are rarely manifested at this time. However, with excessive load, if it is necessary to solve complex problems, a breakdown may occur - the puppy refuses to work, whines, barks, and falls asleep during training.

Passive-defensive behavior in puppies aged 15-45 days is more primitive than in puppies 3-4 months old. In the latter, it manifests itself against the background of complex analytical and synthetic processes in the central nervous system associated with rational activity. These animals are very vulnerable, they solve complex problems well, but at the same time they easily become neurotic. At this age, the typological characteristics of the nervous system are formed, so passive-defensive behavior begins to have a pronounced individual character. At some stage, the puppy notices that his threats by barking, growling, and finally attacking are good defenses in conflict situations. Thus, the passive-defensive reaction is gradually replaced by an active-defensive one, characteristic of many breeds of dogs, especially service dogs.

It is interesting to see the difference in the way the active-defensive reaction develops in dogs of different breeds. Thus, timidity makes an East European Shepherd puppy afraid of everything and everyone. He clings to the protector-owner and is ready to bark at the whole wide world. As he gets older and bigger, he can really scare strangers. A conditioned reaction is developed that associates his attacks with safety. A brave, attacking defender of the owner grows up.

The development of anger in a Rottweiler or black terrier is completely different. Puppies of these breeds are less timid and early acquire a sense of security in the world around them. Often quite a lot of time passes and significant provocation is required for the owner to become convinced that this apparent good nature is the self-confidence of a strong defender dangerous to enemies.

For the correct development of defensive behavior in a puppy at the age of 3-4 months, it is necessary to monitor compliance with the regime, protect it from overload, and, if necessary, use bromides, valerian, Corvalol, Devican and other sedatives.