Psychology or psychoanalysis? Psychoanalysis: Basic concepts and ideas of psychoanalysis Mysteries of modern psychoanalysis

Lecture, abstract. 4. Psychoanalysis as one of the directions in psychology - concept and types. Classification, essence and features.

The essence of S. Freud's method of psychoanalysis (concept)

Psychoanalysis- psychological theories and methods aimed at a systematic explanation of unconscious connections through the associative process.

Sigmund Freud(6.5.1856) - Austrian neuropathologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, founder of psychoanalysis.

The essence of psychoanalysis

1.The theory of human behavior, the first and one of the most influential theories of personality in psychology. Usually refers to classical psychoanalysis, created by Sigmund Freud, but is also used to refer to any derivative (even a very different theory), such as Jung's analytical psychology or Adler's individual psychology, which some prefer to designate as “neopsychoanalysis.”

2. A set of methods for studying the basic motives of a person. The fundamental subject of study of psychoanalysis is unconscious motives of behavior that originate in hidden disorders (usually sexual). They are revealed through free associations expressed by the patient.

3. Methods and techniques for treating mental disorders based on the analysis of free associations, manifestations of transference and resistance, through interpretation and elaboration techniques. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to help free the patient from hidden mechanisms that create conflicts in the psyche, that is, from habitual patterns that are not suitable or create specific conflicts in the realization of desires and in adaptation to society.

Basic ideas of psychoanalysis

The unconscious is special mental forces that lie outside consciousness, but control human behavior.

The conscious - one of the two parts of the psyche, conscious of the individual - determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely, since the choice of behavior itself can be initiated by the unconscious. Consciousness and the unconscious are in an antagonistic relationship; in the endless struggle, the unconscious always wins. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle, and when the balance is disturbed, a reset is carried out through the unconscious sphere.

Freud later proposed the following structure of the psyche:

Superego ("Super-I")

Id ("It")

25. The philosophy of existentialism, its specifics, main problems, personalities.

Existentialism(from Latin exsistentia - existence), the philosophy of existence is a direction in the philosophy of the 20th century, focusing its attention on the uniqueness of the irrational existence of man. Existentialism developed in parallel with related areas of personalism and philosophical anthropology, from which it differs primarily in the idea of ​​overcoming (rather than revealing) a person’s own essence and a greater emphasis on the depth of emotional nature.

This inconsistency is the reason that virtually none of the thinkers classified as existentialism were actually existentialist philosophers. The only one who clearly expressed his belonging to this direction was Jean-Paul Sartre. His position was outlined in the report “Existentialism is Humanism,” where he attempted to summarize the existentialist aspirations of individual thinkers of the early 20th century.

Existentialism (according to Jaspers) traces its origins to Kierkegaard, Schelling and Nietzsche. And also, through Heidegger and Sartre, it genetically goes back to the phenomenology of Husserl (Camus even considered Husserl an existentialist).

Existential philosophy is the philosophy of human existence.

The philosophy of existentialism is an irrational reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and German classical philosophy. According to existentialist philosophers, the main flaw of rational thinking is that it divides the world into two spheres - objective and subjective. Rational thinking considers all reality, including man, only as an object, an “essence”, the knowledge of which can be manipulated in terms of subject-object. True philosophy, from the point of view of existentialism, must proceed from the unity of object and subject. This unity is embodied in “existence,” that is, a certain irrational reality.

According to the philosophy of existentialism, in order to realize oneself as “existence,” a person must find himself in a “borderline situation” - for example, in the face of death. As a result, the world becomes “intimately close” for a person. The true way of knowledge, the way of penetration into the world of “existence” is declared to be intuition (“existential experience” in Marcel, “understanding” in Heidegger, “existential insight” in Jaspers), which is Husserl’s irrationally interpreted phenomenological method.

A significant place in the philosophy of existentialism is occupied by the formulation and solution of the problem of freedom, which is defined as a person’s “choice” of one of countless possibilities. Objects and animals do not have freedom, since they immediately possess “being”, essence. A person comprehends his existence throughout his life and is responsible for every action he commits; he cannot explain his mistakes by “circumstances.” Thus, a person is thought of by existentialists as a “project” building himself. Ultimately, ideal human freedom is freedom of the individual from society.

Martin Heidegger(German Martin Heidegger, September 26, 1889 - May 26, 1976) - German philosopher. He created the doctrine of Being as a fundamental and indefinable, but all-participating element of the universe. The Call of Being can be heard on the paths of purifying personal existence from the depersonalizing illusions of everyday life (early period) or on the paths of comprehending the essence of language (late period). He is also known for the peculiar poetry of his texts and the use of dialectal German in serious works. Heidegger's philosophy re-raises the question of the meaning of existence. Based on the phenomenological method (Husserl), Heidegger consistently distinguishes being and being, the ontic and ontological way of approaching the world. As a philosopher, Heidegger was shaped by his teacher Husserl. Developing his ideas, the early Heidegger developed some thoughts that later inspired Sartre to create existentialism. However, Heidegger himself did not join this trend, but instead, being entirely in Husserl’s “laboratory”, began to create the so-called. fundamental ontology. He was engaged in its development until the end of his days.

The great minds of our planet have been studying the structure of the human personality for many decades. But there are many different questions that scientists cannot answer. Why do people have dreams and what information do they carry? Why can events of past years cause a certain emotional state and provoke rash actions? Why does a person try to save a hopeless marriage and not let go of his half? In order to answer questions related to the topic of psychic reality, the technique of psychoanalysis is used. Freud's psychoanalytic theory is the main topic of this article.

The founder of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud

The theory of psychoanalysis has made a real revolution in the field of psychology. This method was created and put into operation by the great scientist from Austria, doctor of psychiatry Sigmund Freud. Early in his career, Freud worked closely with many eminent scientists. Physiology professor Ernst Brücke, founder of the cathartic method of psychotherapy Joseph Breuer, founder of the theory of the psychogenic nature of hysteria Jean-Marais Charcot are just a small part of the historical figures with whom Sigmund Freud worked together. According to Freud himself, the peculiar basis of his method arose precisely at the moment of collaboration with the above-mentioned people.

While engaged in scientific activities, Freud came to the conclusion that some clinical manifestations of hysteria cannot be interpreted from a physiological point of view. How to explain the fact that one part of the human body completely loses sensitivity, while neighboring areas still feel the influence of various stimuli? How to explain the behavior of people in a state of hypnosis? According to the scientist himself, the above questions are a kind of proof of the fact that only a part of mental processes are a manifestation of central nervous system reactions.

Many people have heard that a person immersed in a hypnotic state can be given a psychological setting, which he will definitely fulfill. It is quite interesting that if you ask such a person about the motives for his actions, he can easily find arguments explaining his behavior. Based on this fact, we can say that human consciousness independently selects arguments for completed actions, even in cases where there is no particular need for explanations.

During the years of Sigmund Freud's life, the fact that human behavior can depend on external factors and motives secret to consciousness was a real shock. It should be noted that it was Freud who introduced such concepts as “unconsciousness” and “subconsciousness”. The observations of this outstanding scientist made it possible to create a theory about psychoanalysis. Briefly, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis can be described as the analysis of the human psyche in terms of the forces that move it. The term “force” should be understood as the motives, consequences and influence of past life experiences on future destiny.

What is the basis of psychoanalysis

According to Freud, human mental nature is continuous and consistent.. The appearance of any thoughts, desires and actions taken have their own reasons, which are characterized by unconscious or conscious motives. Thus, all actions performed have a direct reflection in the future of the individual.

Even in situations where emotional experiences seem unreasonable, there is a hidden connection between various events in human life.

Based on the above facts, Freud came to the conclusion that the human psyche consists of three different areas:

• consciousness;
• unconscious sphere;
• section of the preconscious.

The unconscious sphere includes basic instincts that are an integral part of human nature. This area also includes ideas and emotions that are repressed from consciousness. The reason for their repression may be the perception of such thoughts as prohibited, dirty and not worthy of existence. The unconscious area has no time frame. In order to explain this fact, it should be said that childhood experiences that enter the consciousness of an adult are perceived just as intensely as the first time.

The area of ​​preconsciousness includes part of the unconscious area, which in certain life situations becomes accessible to consciousness. The area of ​​consciousness contains everything that a person is aware of throughout his life. According to Freud's idea, the human psyche is driven by instincts and incentives that force an individual to perform various actions. Among all the instincts, 2 stimuli should be highlighted that have a dominant role:

1. Vital energy– libido.
2. Aggressive Energy- death instinct.

The classical psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud is aimed largely at the study of libido, the basis of which is sexual nature. Libido is a vital energy that is closely related to human behavior, experiences and emotions. In addition, the characteristics of this energy can be interpreted as the cause of the development of mental disorders.

Human personality contains three components:

1. "Super-ego"– Superego;
2. "I"– Ego;
3. "It"- Id.

“It” is inherent in every person from birth. This structure includes basic instincts and heredity. It cannot be described using logic, since “It” is characterized as disorganized and chaotic. It is important to note that the “It” has unlimited influence on the ego and superego.

“I” is one of the structures of the human personality that is in close contact with the people around us.“I” comes from “It” and appears at the moment when the child begins to perceive himself as an individual. “It” is a kind of feed for the “I,” and the “I” acts as a protective shell for basic instincts. In order to better understand the relationship between

"It" and "I", we should consider the example of sexual needs. “It” is a basic instinct, that is, the need for sexual contact. “I” determines under what conditions and when this contact will be realized. This means that “I” has the ability to restrain and control “It,” which is the key to internal psycho-emotional balance.

The “super-ego” originates in the “I” and is a kind of base where moral laws and rules are stored that limit the personality and prohibit certain actions. According to Freud, the task of the superego includes the construction of ideals, introspection and conscience.

All of the above structures have an important role in the development of human personality. They maintain a delicate balance between the danger associated with displeasure and the desire that leads to satisfaction.

The energy that originates in “It” is reflected in “It.” The task of the “Super-I” is to determine the boundaries of the action of this energy. It should be noted that the requirements of external reality may differ from the requirements of the “Super-I” and “It”. This contradiction is the cause of the development of internal conflicts. The following methods are used to resolve such conflicts:

• compensation;
• sublimation;
• defense mechanisms.

Based on the above, we can conclude that dreams are a recreation of human desires that cannot be realized in reality. Recurring dreams clearly indicate the presence of unrealized stimuli. Unfulfilled incentives interfere with self-expression and psychological growth.

Sublimation is a mechanism for redirecting sexual energy to those goals that are approved in society. Such goals include intellectual, social and creative activities. Sublimation is one of the protective mechanisms of the human psyche, and the energy created by it is the basis of civilization.

Anxiety caused by unsatisfied desires can be neutralized by directly addressing the internal conflict. Since internal energy is unable to find a way out, it is necessary to redirect it to overcome existing obstacles. In addition, it is necessary to reduce the consequences that these barriers can provide and compensate for unmet incentives. An example of such compensation is perfect hearing in people with visual impairments.

According to Freud, the human psyche is limitless.

A person who suffers from a lack of certain skills and wants to achieve success can achieve his goal through assertiveness and unmatched performance. But there are examples when the tension that arises can be distorted due to the operation of special protective mechanisms. Such mechanisms include:

• insulation;
• suppression;
• overcompensation;
• negation;
• projection;
• regression.

An example of how these defense mechanisms work should be considered in situations with unrequited love. The suppression of these feelings can be expressed by the phrase “I don’t remember this feeling,” the mechanism of rejection is expressed as “There is no love, and never was,” and isolation can be described as “I don’t need love.”

Summarizing

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis was briefly and clearly presented in this article. To summarize, we can say that this method is one of the attempts to understand those features of the human psyche that were previously incomprehensible. In the modern world, the term “psychoanalysis” is used in the following areas:

1. As the name of a scientific discipline.
2. A collective name for a set of events dedicated to research into the functioning of the psyche.
3. As a method of treating neurotic disorders.

Many modern scientists often criticize Sigmund Freud's theory. However, today, the concepts that were introduced by these scientists are a kind of basis for the science of psychology.

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WHAT IS FREUD'S PSYCHANALYSIS AND HOW DOES IT WORK

One day in the life of a psychoanalyst. Brand film "Insight"

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Around 1900, Freud came to the conclusion that dreams have a symbolic meaning, and are usually very individual. Freud formulates the hypothesis that the unconscious includes or is a “primary process” with concentrated and symbolic content. In contrast, the “secondary process” deals with logical, conscious content. This theory was published by him in 1900 in the monograph “The Interpretation of Dreams.” In Chapter 7 of this book, Freud also describes his early “topographical model,” according to which unacceptable sexual desires are repressed into the “unconscious” system due to social sexual taboos, and this repression gives rise to anxiety.

At the early stage of the development of psychoanalysis, the personal characteristics of Freud and his associates played a significant role in its development. The position of the Jews in Vienna, who had lost contact with their roots, was marginal, which explains their propensity to take risks associated with professional activities in the new field of psychoanalysis. In addition, the incentive for them to rally around the figure of Freud was the opportunity to gain self-identity. The portion of the psychoanalytic movement represented by Jews was disproportionately large. Freud's supporters were extremely arrogant about the prospects of psychoanalysis. Freud himself did not tolerate any criticism, demanding complete and unconditional loyalty from his supporters. The result of all this was the formation in the psychoanalytic movement of a kind of religious cult of Freud, which members of this movement were supposed to treat as a God who never makes mistakes. One of Freud's adherents, Max Graf, who later left the ranks of psychoanalysts, expressed this in the following words: “Freud - as the head of the church - expelled Adler; he excommunicated him from the official church. Over the course of a number of years I experienced the full development of church history."

Topographic model of the mental apparatus

• Consciousness- part of the psyche, conscious of the individual - determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely, since the choice of behavior itself can be initiated unconscious. Consciousness and the unconscious are antagonistic; in the endless struggle, the unconscious always wins. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle; when the balance of possibilities and desires is disturbed (when the desire is not accepted by society or the individual himself), information slips into consciousness through dreams, slips, etc. (that is, through the unconscious sphere).
• Unconscious- part of the psyche, the processes in which are unconscious and are in conflict with the conscious ideas of a person. Freud distinguishes between the unconscious in the descriptive sense of the word (which is not the subject of psychoanalysis), in the dynamic sense - which means the presence of a conflict, as a result of which some experiences are actively repressed from consciousness, and in the structural sense. The latter means that in the unconscious there are special laws governing mental activity - such as the absence of time, the indistinction between fantasy and reality, the absence of the principle of contradiction, etc.
• The preconscious is a part of the psyche that is unconscious in the descriptive sense of the word, but potentially conscious when attention is directed to it. The preconscious, in particular, includes free associations used in the practice of psychoanalysis.

Later (in 1923) Freud proposed a new, structural model of the psyche:

• The id (“It”) is the area of ​​drives, to which, at the time of the consciousness of this model, Freud included the drive to life and the drive to death. The id has taken on many characteristics previously attributed to the unconscious (the pleasure principle, lack of time, etc.), although the instances of the Ego and Superego are also largely unconscious.
• The ego (“I”) is the authority that controls behavior and conscious thinking, and is also responsible for the operation of defense mechanisms.
• Superego (“Super-I”) is a part of the Ego that performs the function of introspection and moral assessment. The superego is formed as a result of introjection of images of parents and their value system.

Overall, the structural model was a step forward in the development of psychoanalytic theory, allowing the description of a wider range of mental disorders and the creation of new tools for psychotherapy. Her significant achievement was, in particular, the theory of defense mechanisms. However, some aspects of the earlier theory were lost in the new one - for example, the concept of the unconscious was not so clearly defined in it. Freud himself did not complete the work of revising his theory and continued to use both models rather arbitrarily. Subsequently, a new generation of analysts made various attempts to complete this work. In particular, American analysts J. Arlow and C. Brenner proposed a systematic revision of all concepts of psychoanalysis in line with the structural model. On the other hand, in Britain, R. Fairbairn and M. Klein inscribed the structural model into object relations theory, describing the origin of Freudian agencies in the early relationships of the child and as a result of the processes of projection and introjection.

Defense Mechanisms

Freud identified and described the following protective mechanisms of the psyche:

Structures of the psyche and structural mechanisms

Freud speaks of three basic mechanisms of the psyche that form the subject: “denial” (Verneinung) lies at the basis of the neurotic personality, “throwing away” (Verwerfung) - the psychotic and “refusal” (Verleugnung) - the perverse.

• neurosis - denial (Verneinung)
• psychosis - throwing away (Verwerfung)
• perversion - refusal (Verleugnung)

Complexes

Split consciousness

Main article: Split consciousness (psychoanalysis)

“The concept of splitting was developed by Freud mainly in the articles “Fetishism” (Fetischismus, 1927), “Splitting of the Self in the Process of Defense” (Die Ichspaltung im Abwehrvorgang, 1938) and in the “Outline of Psychoanalysis” (Abriss der Psychoanalyse, 1938) in connection with reflections on psychosis and fetishism".

Stages of psychosexual development

The development itself is divided into five clearly defined phases:

1. Oral phase(0 - 1.5 years), only the Id - desire - is manifested in the personality;
2. Anal phase(1.5 - 3.5 years), the super-ego is formed - socially determined prohibitions;
3. Phallic phase(3.5 - 6 years), interest in the sexual sphere, its apogee Oedipus complex or Electra complex;
4. Latent phase(6 - 12 years), sexual lull;
5. from 12 years old - Genital phase or adult stage.

Main schools of psychoanalysis

Over more than a hundred years of the history of psychoanalysis, a number of schools and directions have emerged within its framework. The main ones include:

• Classical theory of drives by S. Freud
• M. Klein School
• Structural psychoanalysis by J. Lacan
• Self-psychology of H. Kohut
• Interpersonal psychoanalysis (G.S. Sullivan, Clara Thompson)
• Intersubjective approach (R. Stolorow)

Psychopathology

Adult patients

Various psychoses involve impairment of autonomic ego functions (thought integration, abstract thinking, relation to reality and reality testing). In depression with psychotic elements, the function of self-preservation may also be impaired (sometimes due to overwhelming depressive affect). Self-integration disorders (often resulting in what psychiatrists call “disconnected associations,” “breaks in the flow of associations,” “jumping ideas,” “repetition of meaningless words or phrases,” and “escape of thoughts”) also impair the development of self-object representations . For this reason, clinically psychotics also demonstrate limitations in emotional warmth, empathy, trust, identity, intimacy, and/or stability in relationships (due to self-object fusion anxiety).

Patients with intact autonomic ego functions but problems with object relations are often diagnosed as borderline. Borderline patients also have problems with impulse control, affect, or fantasy, but their ability to test reality remains more or less intact. Adults who do not experience guilt or shame and exhibit criminal behavior are typically diagnosed as psychopaths, or, according to the DSM-IV-TR, as having antisocial personality disorder.

Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsive impulses and depression (analysts call them “neurotic symptoms”) are not always caused by disturbances in ego functions. On the contrary, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. As a rule, these conflicts are associated with sexual and hostile-aggressive desires, feelings of guilt and shame, and facts of reality. Conflicts can be both conscious and unconscious, but in any case they form anxiety, depressive affect and anger. Ultimately, various elements of the conflict are controlled by defense mechanisms - at their core, defense mechanisms are “switching off” mechanisms, thanks to which a person is not aware of a given element of the conflict. “Repression” is a term for a mechanism that forces certain thoughts out of consciousness. “Isolation of affect” is a term for a mechanism that prevents a feeling from being conscious.

Neurotic symptoms can manifest themselves either separately or accompanied by disturbances in ego functions, disturbances in object relations, and disturbances in the strength of the self. That is, obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics or patients suffering from panic attacks with borderline personality disorder are far from uncommon.

Research

For over a hundred years, case reports in Modern Psychoanalysis, Psychoanalytic Quarterly, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, and the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association have assessed the effectiveness of psychoanalysis for neuroses and character and personality disorders. Psychoanalysis, modified by object relations techniques, has been effective in many complex cases of disturbances in the areas of intimacy and interpersonal relationships (see numerous publications by Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic method, psychoanalytic techniques can also be useful in one-time consultations. Psychoanalytic treatment in other cases can last from a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology.

Psychoanalytic theory has been the subject of criticism and controversy since its inception. Freud noted this early in his career, when he was ostracized by medical circles in Vienna for his discovery that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Criticism of psychoanalytic theory began with Otto Rank and Alfred Adler (in the early 20th century), continued within behaviorism (e.g. Wolpe) in the 1940s and 1950s, and continues today. Criticism comes from those who do not agree with the concept of the existence of unconscious mechanisms, thoughts or feelings. The claim of "childhood sexuality" (the description that children between the ages of two and six fantasize about procreation) has also been criticized. The criticism led to modifications of psychoanalytic theory, such as the work of Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint and John Bowlby. In recent decades, criticism has focused on the issue of empirical verification - despite numerous empirical prospective studies (see, for example, the work of Barbara Milord and her colleagues at Cornell University School of Medicine). In modern scientific literature one can find studies that support many of Freud's ideas, such as the unconscious, regression, etc.

Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool in child development (see the journal The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child), and has developed into a flexible, effective method of treating mental disorders. In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) ideas about child development and female sexuality were revised. This led to extensive research in the 1970s and 1980s and subsequent new concepts of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's positions. See also numerous works by Eleanor Galenson, Nancy Chodorow, Karen Horney, Françoise Dolto, Melanie Klein, Selma Freiberg and others. More recently, researchers incorporating attachment theory into their work (e.g., Alice Lieberman, Susan Coates, and Daniel Schechter) have explored the role of parental trauma in young children's development of mental representations of self and others.

Several meta-studies have shown that psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy are comparable in effectiveness to or superior to other types of psychotherapy or treatment with antidepressant medications. Empirical research suggests that "classical" long-term psychoanalysis - where the patient lies on a couch at least three times a week - is also effective. A 2005 review of randomized and controlled trials concluded that "psychoanalytic psychotherapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or standard treatment and (2) more effective than short forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy." Empirical research into the effectiveness of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has become popular among psychoanalytically oriented researchers.

Studies of the effectiveness of psychodynamic treatment in some populations have shown conflicting results. Research by Bertram Caron and his colleagues at Michigan State University suggests that careful use of psychodynamic therapy can be successful in the case of patients with schizophrenia. More recent studies question the validity of this claim. Thus, a report from the Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) does not recommend the use of psychodynamic forms of psychotherapy for schizophrenia, indicating that additional research is needed to confirm their effectiveness. However, the PORT recommendation is based on expert clinician opinion rather than empirical evidence. There is empirical evidence that contradicts this recommendation.

There are various forms of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy that practice psychoanalytic thinking. For example, in addition to classical psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Other examples of common therapeutic methods that use the findings of psychoanalysis are Mentalization-Based Treatment and Transference-Focused Psychotherapy.

Criticism

Already at its very appearance, psychoanalysis was criticized, in particular by such authors as K. Jaspers, A. Kronfeld, K. Schneider, G.-J. Weitbrecht and many others. Initially, the rejection of Freud's concept by European psychiatrists was decisive and widespread - with a few exceptions, such as E. Bleuler and V. P. Serbsky. For example, E. Kraepelin argued:

Based on varied experience, I argue that prolonged and persistent questioning of patients about their intimate experiences, as well as the usual strong emphasis on sexual relations and related advice, can lead to the most unfavorable consequences.

- Kraepelin, E. Introduction to the Psychiatric Clinic

K. Jaspers had unconditional respect for Freud as a person and a scientist and recognized the significant contribution of his theories to science, but considered the psychoanalytic direction of research an unproductive vulgarization of the ideas of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, “a product of myth-making fantasies,” and the movement of psychoanalysis itself was sectarian. He called psychoanalysis “popular psychology,” which allows the average person to easily explain anything. For K. Jaspers, Freudism, just like Marxism, is a surrogate for faith. According to Jaspers, “psychoanalysis bears a significant share of responsibility for the general decline in the spiritual level of modern psychopathology.”

Psychoanalysis was also criticized at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries. In the debate surrounding the teachings of S. Freud, the following main points are discussed: the scientific nature of the concepts he used, the real therapeutic effect of psychoanalytic therapy, as well as the long-term influence of Freudianism on society.

John Kihlstrom in his article “Is Freud Still Alive? Generally speaking, no,” believes that the influence of psychoanalysis has now come to naught and that Freud had a greater influence on culture than on the development of psychology. However, Kihlstrom's point of view remains controversial.

For many decades, Freud's psychoanalysis was reproached for scientific inconsistency. Now these reproaches can be considered fair only in part of the archaic version of psychoanalysis. Modern psychodynamic theory is built on provisions that have received numerous empirical confirmations. In particular, they confirmed (a) the existence of unconscious cognitive, affective and motivational processes, (b) the ambivalence of affective and motivational dynamics and their functioning in parallel, (c) the origin of many personal and social dispositions in childhood, (d) mental representations of the “I” ” and “Others” and their relationships, (e) developmental dynamics (Westen, 1998). For empirical psychology, confirmation of the above provisions is a sensation. For example, in cognitive psychology the phenomenon of the unconscious began to gain recognition only about 15 years ago (see, for example, Kihlstrom, 1987, 2000).

- Dorfman, L. Ya. Empirical psychology: historical and philosophical background

In 1994, Klaus Grawe and a group of scientists published a meta-analysis of 897 of the most significant empirical studies published before 1993 on the effectiveness of psychoanalysis and similar psychotherapeutic techniques. Grave came to the following conclusions:

• there are no positive indications for long-term use (1017 sessions over 6 years or more) of psychoanalysis
• Long-term use of psychoanalysis significantly increases the risk of iatrogenic effects
• short-term use (57 sessions per year) of psychoanalysis is ineffective for patients with fears, phobias and psychosomatic disorders
• short-term use reduces symptoms in patients with mild neurotic and personality disorders

In the same work, Grave conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies that compared the effectiveness of different treatment methods. Grave concluded:

• groups of patients who underwent psychoanalytic therapy showed better results than control groups where there was no therapy, and the therapist only made a diagnosis
• Behavioral therapy turned out to be twice as effective as psychoanalytic therapy.

According to psychoanalyst Peter Kutter, Eysenck and other critics of psychoanalysis in their research use methods that are directly opposite to psychoanalysis and are not applicable to unconscious processes.

According to research by the American Psychoanalytic Association, although psychoanalysis is widespread in many of the humanities, psychology departments often treat it only as a historical artifact.

In his article “Is psychoanalysis harmful?” American psychologist Albert Ellis gave his assessment of the potential harm from the use of psychoanalysis. Specifically, Ellis argued the following:

• psychoanalysis as a whole is built on erroneous premises;
• psychoanalysis takes patients away from the need to work on themselves, gives them an excuse for inaction;
• psychoanalysis encourages the patient's dependence on the therapist, often asking patients to accept the therapist's interpretations on faith, even if they are far from the facts;
• the expressive, cathartic-abreactic method of psychoanalysis, which consists in accepting and releasing hostility, does not solve the problem of hostility, but only aggravates it;
• psychoanalysis develops conformity in patients;
• the irrationalism of psychoanalysis confuses patients already suffering from irrational beliefs;
• Due to the ineffectiveness of psychoanalysis (wasted money and time), many patients in the United States have lost confidence in psychotherapy in general.

Psychoanalytic therapy is in many respects based on a search for something that probably does not exist (repressed childhood memories), an assumption that is probably wrong (that childhood experiences are the cause of the patients' problems), and a therapeutic theory that has almost no chance of being true. (that bringing repressed memories into consciousness is an essential part of the course of treatment).

According to the American philosopher of science, the famous critic of psychoanalysis A. Grünbaum, the lasting therapeutic success on which Freud’s statement about the etiological evidence of the method of free associations is based never took place in reality, and temporary therapeutic results are completely explainable not by the true effectiveness of this method (that is, its effectiveness in detecting and relieving repressions), but with therapeutic factors of a different nature - the placebo effect, that is, the temporary mobilization of the patient’s hopes by doctors. “Isn't it too simple to be true that someone could lay a mentally troubled subject on a couch and discover the etiology of her or his illness by free association? Compared to finding out the causes of major somatic diseases, this looks almost like a miracle, unless true"- writes A. Grünbaum. He mentions that, according to careful research, so-called “free associations” are not really free, but depend on subtle hints from the psychoanalyst to the patient and therefore cannot reliably vouch for the content of the supposed repressions that they supposedly relieve.

Many experts from the field of neurobiology, cognitive psychology, philosophy of science and theory of knowledge believe that the methods and theories of psychoanalysis have no scientific basis, and psychoanalysis itself is often considered a pseudoscientific theory.

Reaction to criticism

For their part, psychoanalysts accuse many critics of bias and hidden support for other types of help (psychiatric drug treatment, behavioral therapy, etc.). They counter these criticisms with new research projects that rely on both traditional psychoanalytic case studies and objective quantitative methods.

Psychoanalysis of literature

Psychoanalysis in the 20th century was widely used in the analysis of literary creativity, understood as a manifestation of the author’s unconscious inclinations. He is close to the methods of pathographic analysis of literature and psychiatric literary criticism.

Associations and schools

• International Association Analytical Psychology (IAAP)

see also

Notes

1. Psychoanalysis // Encyclopædia Britannica.
2. Erich Fromm (1992:13-14) The Revision of Psychoanalysis
3. Leibin V. M. Psychoanalysis (unavailable link since 06/14/2016)/ Sociology: Encyclopedia / comp. A. A. Gritsanov, V. L. Abushenko, G. M. Evelkin, G. N. Sokolova, O. V. Tereshchenko. - Minsk: Book House, 2003. - 1312 p. - (World of encyclopedias).
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What secrets does our psyche hide? Why do they say that “we all come from childhood”? Why do we stubbornly step on the same rake and can’t get out of the vicious circle of relationships that don’t suit us? Where do dreams come from and what are they trying to tell us?

These and many other questions concerning the mental life of a person are answered by psychoanalysis, created at the beginning of the 20th century and which undermined the psychology of consciousness to the core.

The revolutionary views of Sigmund Freud, a brilliant scientist of the early 20th century, not only revolutionized the science of psychology, but also had a huge impact on the entire Western culture. Meanwhile, it cannot be said that the choice of the field of activity, which Freud would later indulge in with all the passion characteristic only of great talents, was made by him consciously.

Sigmund Freud (born 1856) came from a poor Jewish family, and therefore, even having brilliantly graduated from high school in Vienna, he did not have the opportunity to do anything other than medicine and law - these were the unspoken anti-Semitic rules of those times. Freud chose the medical faculty of the University of Vienna. From the very beginning, he wanted to engage more in scientific research, but financial difficulties forced him to start practicing. Freud managed to work as a surgeon, and as a therapist, and as a family doctor, but he chose psychiatry and neuropathology.

Freud was unusually efficient: his legacy consists of 24 volumes of scientific works. He constantly developed and revised his views, passionately asserting and confirming with practical research the truth of his guesses and insights. A circle of young doctors gathered around Freud, many of whom subsequently developed their own ideas and created their own schools of psychological thought. It was not easy to get along with him - he tyrannically demanded devotion and loyalty from his comrades and despotically expelled those who dared to criticize his theory or offer new, in Freud's opinion, erroneous views on the psyche. Perhaps his Jewish origin, which automatically made him a person of the lower class, and the need to defend his opinion, instilled in Freud from his youth “fighting” qualities and the ability to resist the majority.

In the last years of his life, Freud struggled with constant pain caused by a serious illness - facial cancer. Over the course of 15 years, he underwent thirty-three operations, but did not stop working: conducting research, giving lectures, publishing works. The more famous his views became, the more criticism he received, and the more forcefully Freud countered the arguments of his opponents. In 1933, the Nazis burned a pile of his books, to which Freud reacted with humor, noting that this was progress, and that in the Middle Ages they would have burned him. In 1938, after the Nazis captured Austria, Freud was allowed to leave for England, where he died a year later.

The history of psychoanalysis

At the beginning of his career, Sigmund Freud was lucky enough to work with such outstanding scientists as the famous European physiologist Ernst Brücke, the doctor Joseph Breuer, who successfully practiced hypnosis, and the famous neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. (Yes, yes, the same Charcot, whose shower is still used today to treat neuropsychiatric disorders). Some ideas and thoughts that arose during this initial period of activity were subsequently developed in Freud's scientific works.

In particular, the attention of the young scientist and practicing physician Sigmund Freud was attracted by the fact that some of the symptoms manifested in patients with hysteria could not be explained from a physiological point of view. For example, a person “lost sensation” in one area of ​​his body, although nerve conduction in neighboring areas remained healthy. Another example that not all processes occurring in the psyche can be explained by the reaction of the nervous system or an act of human consciousness was the observation of the behavior of people subjected to hypnosis. Now everyone understands that a person in a hypnotic state can be given an order to perform certain actions, and after waking up the person will unconsciously strive to carry out the order. If you ask a person why he wants to perform this action, he will give completely logical reasons. That is, the psyche itself “comes up” with explanations for actions, even if there is no objective need for these actions. In Freud's time, the understanding that a person's conscious actions can be controlled by reasons hidden from consciousness was a real discovery. Before Freud, the concepts of “unconscious” or “subconscious” did not exist at all! These observations served as the impetus for the development of psychoanalysis - that is, the analysis of the human psyche from the point of view of its driving forces, causes and consequences, the influence of previous experiences on subsequent life and on neuropsychic health.

Basic principles of psychoanalysis

The entire theory of psychoanalysis is based on Freud's assertion that in the nature of mental (mental) life there are no interruptions or inconsistencies. Every thought, desire, feeling or action has its own reason - a conscious or unconscious intention. Previous events and experiences influence subsequent ones. Even if some mental experiences, in a person’s opinion, are not justified by anything, there are hidden connections that establish one conscious event with another.

Therefore, the human psyche can be divided into three areas: consciousness, preconscious, unconscious.

• The area of ​​the unconscious belongs to instinctive elements that have never been in consciousness and will never be accessible to it. Also here, experiences, feelings and thoughts that have not passed the “censorship” are forced out of consciousness, that is, perceived by a person as forbidden, dirty, and not having the right to life. The unconscious is not subject to time. Early childhood memories, if they suddenly come back into consciousness, remain as vivid as at the time of their inception.
• The preconscious is a part of the unconscious that can easily become accessible to consciousness.
• Consciousness includes what we are aware of at every moment of time in our lives.

The main active forces of the psyche, according to Freud, are instincts - tensions that direct the body towards a specific goal. There are two main instincts:

• Libido (from Latin “desire”) – the energy of life;
• Aggressive energy or death instinct.

In psychoanalytic theory, most of the “libido” is considered, which is basically sexual in nature. Libido is living energy, the occurrence, quantity, movement and distribution of which can explain observed mental disorders or features in a person’s behavior, thoughts and experiences.

In human personality, according to psychoanalysis, three structures are represented: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego).

It (Id) is everything inherent in a person from the beginning - heredity and instincts. The id does not obey the laws of logic; everything in it is chaotic and disorganized. However, the Id undoubtedly influences the Ego and Superego. Id is a blind king whose power is unlimited, but who is forced to rely on subordinates to carry out his will.

I (Ego) is that part of the personality that is in direct contact with others. The ego develops from the id as the child begins to recognize himself as an individual. The ego feeds on the juices of the Id, protecting it like the bark protects a tree. The interaction of the Ego and the Id can be represented by the example of a sexual need: The Id would discharge this need through direct sexual activity, the Ego is called upon to decide when and under what conditions such activity would be appropriate. The ego restrains or redirects the instinctive id, ensuring physical and mental health, as well as personal security.

The Super-I (Super-Ego) - in turn develops from the Ego. The super-ego is a repository of moral norms and laws, these are restrictions and prohibitions imposed on the individual. According to Freud, the superego has three functions: conscience, introspection and the formation of ideals.

The id, ego and superego are called upon to jointly achieve one goal: to maintain a balance between the desire for increased pleasure and the danger of displeasure.

The energy born in the Id finds expression in the Ego, and the Super-Ego defines the boundaries of the Ego. Since the demands of the id, the superego and the external reality to which the personality must adapt are often contradictory, conflicts inevitably arise in the personality.

Intrapersonal conflicts can be resolved in several ways:

• Dreams;
• Sublimation;
• Compensation;
• Blocking using “protection mechanisms”

In dreams one can find expressions of desires that were not fulfilled in real life. Recurring dreams may indicate some unfulfilled need, which is an obstacle to a person’s free self-expression and his further psychological growth.

Sublimation is the redirection of libidinal energy to socially approved goals. Often such goals are creativity, intellectual or social activity. Sublimation can be called a successful defense. Sublimated energy creates what is commonly called civilization.

Anxiety arising as a result of unsatisfied desire can be resolved by directly addressing the problem. In this case, the energy that does not find a way out is directed to overcoming difficulties, to reducing their consequences, to compensating for the lack of something. A striking example of organic compensation is the development of perfect hearing in visually impaired or blind people. The human psyche can do the same: for example, with a lack of abilities and a strong desire to certainly achieve success in a chosen activity, a person may develop unprecedented performance or excessive assertiveness.

For example, such a situation as the loss of love and recognition, with the impossibility of gaining approval again, can cause severe anxiety and worry - create unbearable tension. This tension can find a way out in dreams, or be directed towards creativity: creating poetry, drawing pictures, and so on. Or in such a situation, a person can directly try to win favor and direct his efforts to obtain approval from someone - everyone knows cases when some people compensate for failures in their personal lives with extremely successful careers.

But in other cases, the resulting tension is distorted or rejected using such defense mechanisms as repression (suppression), denial, rationalization, reaction formation, isolation, projection and regression, overcompensation.

In the example we gave with the loss of love, the defense mechanisms can be illustrated as follows:

• Repression (suppression): – Was there love? I do not remember…
• Denial: - There was no love!
• Rationalization: – I loved (loved) the wrong person, it was a mistake.
• Reactive education (distortion of need): – My best man is my cat!
• Isolation: – Love is not for me.
• Projection (attributing one’s thoughts and feelings to others): – Nobody loves anyone, no one knows how to truly love... (We read: no one loves me...)
• Regression (transition to earlier stages of development): – I now have only one love – delicious food.
• Overcompensation (excessive compensation) – I am for free sexual relationships without restrictions!

Psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud's brilliant attempt to understand and describe those components of mental life that seemed incomprehensible in the pre-Freudian period.

From the time of its creation to the present day, the word “psychoanalysis” has been used to refer to:

• procedures for studying mental processes;
• method of treating neurotic disorders;
• scientific discipline.

Psychoanalytic practice

Perhaps, when hearing the word “psychoanalysis,” a picture will pop up in many people’s heads, often anecdotally used in cinema:

Indifferent with an absolutely neutral expression on his face, sometimes bearded (so that no emotions are visible at all), the analyst sits at his desk, and the patient sits in a reclining chair or on a couch, almost with his back to the analyst, and tells something about his life. . The analyst occasionally makes remarks, but in general does not interfere or force the patient's flow of speech. From the nature of what is happening, it is clear that while the patient is pouring out his soul, the psychoanalyst is immersed in his own thoughts and does not follow the process too closely.

The meaning of all this action is not very clear, and often people are sincerely surprised why psychoanalysts are “paid so much money!”

In fact, the psychoanalysis procedure looks almost the same outwardly, with the exception that at the moment of the patient’s story the analyst is extremely focused - after all, it is at this moment that he analyzes in “real time” everything that the patient entrusts to him. During psychoanalysis, the client really does not sit opposite the analyst, but slightly to the side, but so that, if desired, he can turn his head and see the expression on his face. There are definitely emotions on the analyst’s face, and these emotions should show the person: “I accept everything you say, I don’t judge, I don’t moralize, I don’t pass judgment.”

The analyst's main task is to release subconscious thoughts and feelings so that they can be worked with consciously. This is why an atmosphere of relaxation and trust is created on the one hand and complete neutrality on the other. The rule of neutrality also lies in the fact that in psychoanalysis any personal contact between the patient and the analyst is prohibited: no handshakes, not to mention more. The patient does not have to know the details of the psychoanalyst’s personal life; it is enough that he knows his professional data.

The goal of psychoanalysis is to release blocked energy and allow it to be freely realized, making a person freer and happier. It is believed that by understanding the causes of suppressed drives and realizing the presence of complexes, it is possible, although not without difficulty, to find acceptable forms of expression of the Id, as well as to make the human Ego strong, independent and more independent of the Super-Ego.

Freud's works and psychoanalysis are often criticized today, but the concepts he introduced: It (Id), I (Ego), Super-Ego (Super-Ego), libido, sublimation, and defense mechanisms are today understandable not only to scientists, practicing psychologists, psychotherapists and psychiatrists , but also simply culturally educated people. Psychoanalysis is reflected in literature and art, including cinema, in anthropology, ethnography, pedagogy and sociology.