Enlightenment in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Science and education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century

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Plan

Introduction

1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century

2. Activities of I. I. Betsky

3. Activities of N. I. Novikov

4. Activities of A. N. Radishchev

List of used literature

Introduction

The period of the highest development of school affairs in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). For the first time, a European-educated person was at the head of the state. Catherine showed special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. In 1762 she wrote: "The passion of this year is to write about education... the formation of an ideal man and a worthy citizen."

Russian politicians, scientists, and teachers took part in the discussion of issues of upbringing and education within the framework of the pan-European Enlightenment movement. The writings of Russian educators proclaimed the ideas of developing a national education system, public education, and the advisability of studying and using Western pedagogy in compliance with their own traditions.

Russian educators joined the pan-European debate on education. At the same time, they expressed their original opinions. In their writings they pursued the idea of ​​free development of personality (E.R. Dashkova - “On the meaning of the word “education”,” A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky - “On education”, V.V. Krestinin - “Historical news about moral education. .. ", E. B. Syreyshchikov - "On the benefits of moral teaching in the education of youth", H. A. Chebotarev - "A word about the methods and paths leading to enlightenment", M. M. Snegirev - "A word about the benefits of moral education" The authors rejected the thesis of the predominant “natural education" of J. - J. Rousseau and insisted on the priority of public education. At the same time, they did not share Helvetius’s opinion about the omnipotence of social influence and the insignificance of the role of heredity in education.

The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment received special attention from the Russian Empress. Ekaterina sought to use the achievements of European pedagogical thought when implementing her projects. She carefully studied “Thoughts on Education” by J. Locke, the pedagogical theories of M. Montaigne, F. Fenelon, J. -J. Rousseau. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the “University Plan for Russia.” In the 1770s. Ekaterina was especially interested in the pedagogical activities of I. B. Bazedov.

Over time, Catherine’s pedagogical preferences underwent evolution. If at the beginning of her reign the empress demonstrated her commitment to the ideas of the French Enlightenment, then at the end of her life she moved away from liberal hobbies. When forced to choose between the ideals of the Enlightenment and eliminating the threat to the throne, Catherine did not hesitate. Evidence of this is the fate of the outstanding Russian educators N. Novikov and A. Radishchev. The first was thrown into the Peter and Paul Fortress on suspicion of a Masonic conspiracy against the Empress. The second, for daring to publicly condemn the autocracy, was sent into exile in Siberia.

1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century

A kind of manifesto of Russian pedagogy at the end of the 18th century. became the collective treatise of Moscow University professors “The Way of Teaching” (1771). The treatise proclaims important didactic ideas about active and conscious learning.

The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. Having gotten rid of compulsory service, the nobility sought to fill their leisure time by becoming familiar with the cultural achievements of Europe. The desire for new Western education increased.

A very remarkable event was the dispute about the priority of Greek-Latin education. According to the testimony of the future US President J. Adams, who served in 1781-1783. at the American diplomatic mission in Russia, in St. Petersburg, “there was no good place to study Latin and Greek.”

The stronghold of Greco-Latin education, the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy, is entering a new period of its development. The teaching of Russian and Greek languages ​​is being strengthened; The teaching of Hebrew and modern languages ​​is introduced, as well as a number of educational subjects (philosophy, history, medicine). The Academy becomes exclusively a spiritual and educational institution and ceases to meet the requirements of new times. Universities take its place.

If under Peter I a compulsory (“decree”) program reigned, according to which the nobles had to acquire certain scientific and technical knowledge, now only the children of small landed nobles studied in the corresponding schools. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other arts.

Such a turn had a negative impact on the state of educational institutions, headed by St. Petersburg and Moscow universities. Thus, M.V. Lomonosov testifies that at the St. Petersburg Academic University “neither the image nor the likeness of the university is visible.” Professors usually did not give lectures; students were recruited from other educational institutions as recruits; recruits most often “found themselves in no good condition to receive lectures from professors.” A similar picture was at Moscow University. When it opened, it had 100 students; 30 years later - only 8. Classes took place on average 100 days a year.

This did not mean that scientific and pedagogical life came to a standstill at universities. Foreign and domestic scientists were involved in giving lectures. Among the latter are S. N. Kotelnikov (professor of mathematics), A. P. Protasov (professor of anatomy), N. V. Popov (professor of astronomy). Professors of Moscow University and the Academy of Sciences published Russian translations of the pedagogical works of J. Locke, J. A. Comenius, J. -J. Rousseau. They were the authors of manuals for schools and home teachers, as well as school reform projects. Thanks to their activities, original educational literature was created in various fields of knowledge (native language, mathematics, geography, natural science, etc.). In the works of professors of Moscow University and scientists of the Academy of Sciences ("On the benefits of sciences..." A. N. Popovsky, "A Word about... human concepts" D. S. Anichkov, etc.) important questions of moral, mental and physical education. Thus, the expediency of using Western pedagogical experience and Russian folk pedagogical traditions was emphasized.

Special military educational institutions - the land and naval cadet corps - made noticeable progress. The Charter of 1766 divided the training program in the cadet corps into three groups of sciences: 1) those guiding the knowledge of subjects necessary for the civilian rank; 2) useful or artistic; 3) “guiding to the knowledge of other arts.” The sciences of the first group included moral teaching, jurisprudence, and economics. The sciences of the second group include general and experimental physics, astronomy, general geography, navigation, natural science, military sciences, drawing, engraving, architecture, music, dancing, fencing, sculpture. The sciences of the third group include logic, mathematics, eloquence, physics, sacred and secular world history, geography, chronology, Latin and French, mechanics. Such an extensive program was only partially implemented. A very significant number of hours were spent in French.

In the second half of the 18th century. Private educational institutions intended for the noble class began to develop. They used the public school curriculum.

The upper nobility raised their children at home. At first the teachers were Germans, then the French began to replace them more and more often. Most of the first foreign tutors turned out to be unsuccessful teachers. As the decree of 1755 states, “many, having not found good teachers, take in people who have spent their whole lives as footmen, hairdressers and other similar crafts.”

In the history of school projects and reforms of the Catherine era, two stages are visible. At the first stage (1760s), the influence of the French pedagogical tradition was noticeable. At the second stage (from the beginning of the 1780s) - the influence of German school and pedagogical experience.

In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795) as her chief adviser on educational issues. Betskoy was well acquainted with the pedagogical ideas of the West. He compiled reports and statutes, primarily the “General Plan for an Educational Home” (1764) and “Brief Instructions ... on the Education of Children,” where he follows Rousseau and Locke in the interpretation of issues of physical, mental and moral education. Betsky owns projects for educating “ideal nobles.”

In addition to Betsky's plans, in the 1760s. Several more projects were put forward: on the establishment of various schools (1764), the organization of state gymnasiums (1767), a commission on schools (1768), etc.

Moscow University professor F. G. Dilthey also drew up a plan for establishing a system of primary (trivial) schools, gymnasiums, universities and institutions for training educators for noble children from representatives of the serf class ("slave" or "uncle" schools). It was planned to create two “uncle schools” - in Moscow and St. Petersburg, more than 20 “trivial schools” for the nobility and free classes, where they would prepare for entry into the gymnasium, 9 four-year gymnasiums for nobles and free commoners, 2 new universities.

The project of “state gymnasiums” or “children’s educational academies”, presented in 1767 by the Commission for drawing up a plan for educational reform, provided for the organization of closed state educational institutions for children from 5-6 years of age to 18 years of age “without distinction of rank” (excluding serfs). It was planned to open gymnasiums of 4 types: general education, civil, military and merchant. In all types of gymnasiums it was proposed to pay special attention to the study of trade and industry, and foreign languages. The introduction of compulsory primary education for boys was also envisaged.

Several projects were prepared by the “Private Commission on Schools” created in 1768: 1) on lower village schools; 2) about lower city schools; 3) about secondary schools; 4) about schools for non-believers. It was planned to establish primary schools everywhere in villages and large villages - lower village schools; build buildings at the expense of parishioners; recruit teachers from local priests; Teachers' work must be paid in kind and in cash at the expense of parents. Schools were for boys. At the request of parents, girls could be admitted to schools and taught for free. Religion and reading were to be compulsory subjects. Lower city schools were also established at the expense of the townspeople. Schools were for boys and girls. The program included religion, reading and writing. The population of the eastern outskirts was supposed to attend schools for non-believers. The programs were planned similar to those of the first two types of schools. It was proposed that teachers should be representatives of the relevant faiths; training should be conducted in the native language of the “non-believers”.

Projects from the 1760s on the public education system, on the establishment and state support of urban and rural schools remained unimplemented due to lack of funds. The government's interest in school reform was blunted by the peasant uprising and the wars that Russia waged in 1768-1774. But by the beginning of the 1780s. The issue of school reform has again become relevant.

In 1782, Catherine appointed the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools.” In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire” (1786). The Serbo-Croatian thinker and teacher Fedor Ivanovich Jankovic de Marievo (1741-1814) took an active part in the development of these documents. Working with him were Lomonosov’s nephew M.E. Golovin (1756-1790), a graduate of St. Petersburg University F.V. Zuev (1754-1794), a professor at Moscow University E.B. Syreyshchikov (d. 1790), and others.

The "Charter..." proclaimed education as the "single means" of the public good. The document stated that education should begin from “infancy” so that “the seeds of necessary and useful knowledge grow in youth and, when mature, bring fruit to society.” The drafters of the "Charter..." positively resolved the extremely important issue of teaching in the "natural", i.e. Russian, language.

According to the "Charter..." of 1786, small and main public schools were opened in cities. These were free mixed schools for boys and girls, outside the control of the church. They could be used by the middle strata of the urban population. Small schools were supposed to prepare literate people who could write and count well, who knew the basics of Orthodoxy and the rules of behavior. The main schools were required to provide broader training on a multi-subject basis. Small schools were designed for two years of study. They taught reading, writing, numbering, sacred history, catechism, rudiments of civics, arithmetic, Russian grammar, penmanship and drawing. Schools were maintained at the expense of city governments.

Education in the main public schools lasted five years. In addition to the small school program, the course of study included the gospel, history, geography, geometry, mechanics, physics, natural science, architecture; for those interested - Latin and living foreign languages: Tatar, Persian, Chinese (teaching Western European languages ​​was not provided). In the main schools it was possible to acquire a pedagogical education.

Official representatives of the church were removed from the schools. Teaching (including catechism and sacred history) was entrusted to civilian teachers.

The "Charter..." approved the class-lesson system. The teacher was required to work simultaneously with the whole class. After presenting new material, “questioning” should be carried out. A rule was established for the students: whoever wanted to answer had to raise his left hand. The school now has a lesson schedule, a blackboard, chalk, and a class log of student success and attendance. Specific start and end dates were set for classes.

The reform undertaken in accordance with the charter of 1786 was an important stage in the development of school affairs. The number of public schools grew rapidly: by the end of the 18th century. out of 500 cities, 254 had schools. They were attended by 22 thousand students, including 1800 girls. This accounted for a third of all students in educational institutions in Russia. However, in fact, these schools could not be used by the children of peasants. Due to a shortage of teachers and insufficient government support, many schools gradually reduced the quality of education, and some, barely having time to open, ceased to exist.

2. Activities I. AND. Betsky

In 1764, Betskoy presented a report to Catherine II on the general reorganization of the education of children in Russia, which subsequently received the force of law and was published under the title “General Institution on the Education of Both Sexes of Youth.” The report spoke of the need to educate in Russia “a new breed of people - educated nobles, capable of treating peasants humanely and fairly governing the state, and commoners - “the third rank of people”, capable of developing industry, trade, and craft. To do this, it was necessary, Betskoy believed, to organize closed educational institutions, in which children from the age of five or six should stay for 10-12 years. They should be isolated from others so as not to be exposed to the “corrupt influence of the environment.

From Empress Betskaya he received the task of transforming existing educational institutions and opening new ones. He changed the structure of educational work in cadet corps and gymnasiums, and extended the length of stay of students in them. He also opened a number of new educational institutions for different classes, except for serfs, including the founding of the Institute of Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) in St. Petersburg for noblewomen with a department for girls from the bourgeoisie.

I. I. Betskoy believed it was possible to create a new breed of people through education. Overestimating the role of education in public life, he argued that “the root of all evil and good is education.” He hoped that the first new people brought up in closed educational institutions would pass on the views and habits instilled in them to their children, who in turn would pass on to future generations, and so gradually, peacefully, the morality and actions of people would change, and, consequently, society would improve and social life. Class limitations forced him to believe in the omnipotence of education.

Betskoy considered the main means of moral nutrition, “education of the heart,” to be “instilling the fear of God,” isolating children from the environment, and positive examples. He proposed to support in children a tendency to work hard, to create in them the habit of avoiding idleness, to always be courteous and compassionate towards poverty and misfortune. One should also, he said, instill in children a penchant for neatness and thrift, and teach them how to run a household.

Betskoy attached great importance to physical education, the main means of which he considered clean air, as well as “amusement with innocent fun and games, so that thoughts always lead to encouragement, eradicating everything that can be called boredom, thoughtfulness and regret.” He demanded that cleanliness be maintained, physical exercises and labor activities be carried out to develop the physical strength of children. He compiled a manual for the physical education of children entitled “A brief instruction, selected from the best authors with some physical notes on the education of children from birth to adolescence,” which, based on a resolution of the Senate, was sent throughout the cities of Russia to all educational institutions.

Regarding issues of mental education, Betskoy pointed out that the learning process should be pleasant for children, carried out without coercion, and based on children's inclinations. Youth should be taught, in his opinion, “more by watching and listening than by practicing lessons.” Betskoy warned that forcing children to study could lead to dulling of children's abilities, and insisted on the categorical prohibition of physical punishment. In the “General Plan of the Moscow Orphanage” it was said on this matter: “Introduce the law once and forever and strictly state - never beat children for anything.”

Betskoy demanded that educators be carefully selected to replace parents for children, he demanded that educators be Russian, “conscientious and worthy of example,” he spoke of creating a friendly family out of everyone living in the orphanage. But, while proclaiming progressive ideas, Betskoy cared little about their implementation in the children's institutions created by the government.

Betsky's views bore the imprint of class and noble narrow-mindedness. First of all, this was manifested in his demand to “instill the fear of God in the hearts of children,” in his illusory belief that through education the class-serf system could be improved, as well as in his demand to isolate children from the surrounding reality, placing them in closed educational institutions.

In 1763, the first educational home in Russia was opened in Moscow. Betskoy was appointed his trustee.

The pupils at home were divided by age: from 2 to 7 years. from 7 to 11, from 11 to 14. Until the age of 2, children were in the arms of wet nurses, after which they were transferred to “common quarters”, where they were brought up in games and work activities. Labor training continued throughout the child's stay in the orphanage. Boys were taught gardening and gardening work and crafts, girls were taught housekeeping, knitting, spinning, lace-making, sewing, ironing, and cooking. From the ages of 7 to 11, children attended school, where they studied for only one hour a day, learning to read and write. From 11 to 14 years old, children studied catechism, arithmetic, drawing and geography at school. They were given very little knowledge, with the exception of a few students who were considered especially gifted. Within each age group, children were divided into three subgroups. The first group included those who showed great ability to learn. They were supposed to be taught a larger number of academic subjects, and upon reaching the age of 14, they were sent to continue their studies at Moscow University or the Academy of Arts. Naturally, under the conditions of serfdom, a very small number of children fell into this subgroup. Most of the pupils faced hard physical work. The second subgroup included children who demonstrated skill in crafts; skilled craftsmen were trained from them. The third subgroup included children who were supposedly only capable of physical labor, and who, at the end of their stay in the orphanage, were assigned to serve as domestic servants for merchants and landowners. Their plight was softened to some extent by a decree according to which young men and women released from... educational homes. could not be made serfs. The decree stated that if a male student marries a serf or a girl marries a serf, they would have to bring freedom to those they married and to their future children.

In 1770, a branch of the Moscow Orphanage was opened in St. Petersburg, which soon became an independent St. Petersburg Orphanage; later orphanages opened in provincial cities.

Institutions for the care of orphans and homeless children existed on charitable funds collected in various ways, including donations from rich people. In the interests of strengthening the exploitative system, the rich and noble sometimes resorted to handouts, bestowing their “alms on the working masses they exploited.

The creation of charitable philanthropic societies was caused by various considerations. Of greatest importance was the desire to eliminate the danger that threatens the peace of the oppressors from the presence in the country of homeless people, thrown out of life, people who, due to their unsettled situation, are in opposition to the existing system. The actions of other benefactors were driven by personal motives: some wanted to become famous during their lifetime, others, doing “good deeds on earth in accordance with the requirements of Christian morality, counted on an afterlife in “paradise.” The pride of the queen and other members of the “educational societies”, who were in charge of the educational homes, was flattered by the charters and documents regulating the work of the houses created by Betsky and the professor of Moscow University Barsov. But the philanthropists and “benefactors” did not mean to actually follow the requirements formulated in these documents.

The life of children in orphanages was very difficult. There were a lot of children in each house, sometimes up to 1000 people. The huge concentration of children of pre-preschool and preschool age at a time when medicine did not yet have the means to combat infectious diseases led to horrific child mortality. In the St. Petersburg house in 1764, out of 524 children, 424 died, sometimes out of 100 children, 83-87 and even over 90 died. Since 1772, educational homes had to transfer infants to villages for a fee for patronage, in order to prevent infant mortality, but and this event had a very difficult impact on the fate of the pupils. The people called the royal charitable institutions for the care of young children “factories of angels.”

The meager material resources allocated to orphanages did not make it possible to organize the care of children and their upbringing in accordance with the requirements of medicine and pedagogy. Due to the widespread embezzlement and extortion on the part of employees and officials in feudal Russia, the pupils of the houses did not even receive the meager allowance that they were entitled to. Due to the government's lack of concern for the training of educators, the homes were staffed with unqualified personnel, and in most cases they were staffed by ignorant people who received pitiful remuneration for their work. “The educators were far from the humane demands that I.I. Betskoy preached; they treated the children of the people rudely and cruelly, which was supported by the entire system of class-serf relations.

3. Activity N. AND. Novikova

A prominent place in the history of Russian enlightenment in the second half of the 18th century. belongs to Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818). Novikov was educated at Moscow University, and an important period of his educational and book publishing activities was associated with this same outstanding educational institution in Russia, which ended with his arrest and imprisonment in the Shlisselburg fortress for 15 years. (Condemned by Catherine II in 1792, he was released four years later by Paul I.)

During the St. Petersburg period of his activity, Novikov took an active part in the creation of public schools independent from the state, mobilized public initiative to organize schools for the unprivileged classes. In the satirical magazines “Zhivopiets”, “Truten” and “Wallet” he published, Novikov promoted the idea of ​​equality of people, respect for human dignity, and sharply criticized the education of the nobility.

From 1779 to 1789 Novikov was at the head of the largest book publishing and bookselling business in Russia, based on a university printing house. Among the numerous publications, textbooks, alphabet books, primers and other aids for teaching children occupied an important place. Novikov was the creator and editor of the first Russian magazine for children, “Children's Reading for Mind and Heart.” This publication was actually the beginning of the publication of children's literature in Russia, and the 20 books (issues) of the magazine that were published were a window to the big world for several generations. The educational and educational significance of this magazine was highly appreciated by S. T. Aksakov, V. G. Belinsky, N. I. Pirogov.

The publications of N. I. Novikov contributed to the formation of progressive pedagogical thought in Russia. Thus, in the article “On the Socratic Method of Teaching” the problem of creating pedagogy as a science was first put forward. In another of his articles, “On Aesthetic Education,” the task of aesthetic education of children was considered for the first time as part of a broad process covering all aspects of the formation of a child’s personality.

Of particular importance was the article “On the education and instruction of children. For the dissemination of generally useful knowledge and general well-being.” This is, without a doubt, the most important pedagogical work of that time, in which issues of physical, mental and moral education were deeply and thoroughly considered. In the section “On the Education of the Mind,” Novikov formulated a number of important rules, the psychological and pedagogical value of which was not devalued by the subsequent development of pedagogical thought.

Rule one: do not extinguish the curiosity of your children or pets.

Rule two: train your children or pets in using the senses; teach them to feel fairly.

Rule three: beware of giving children false or not quite precisely defined concepts about any thing, no matter how unimportant it may be. It is much better for them not to know many things at all, rather than to imagine them unfairly; much. It is better for you to completely refuse to answer some of their questions than to give an ambiguous and insufficient answer.

Rule four: do not teach children anything that, due to their age or lack of other supposed knowledge, they cannot understand.

Rule five: try not only to increase and spread their knowledge, but also to make it thorough and true.

All these rules were well substantiated in the article and were supported by many results from careful observations of children’s development.

The activities and views of N. I. Novikov were of great importance for the development of social and professional pedagogical thought in Russia.

4. Activity A. N. Radishcheva

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) is the founder of Russian revolutionary enlightenment. He not only courageously stood up to defend the interests of the serf peasantry, but also rose to understand the need for a revolutionary struggle against tsarism. Radishchev justified the peasant war, led by Pugachev, he developed the theory of people's revolution and considered the uprising of the people the only way to liberate Russia from serfdom and autocracy. V.I. Lenin called Radishchev the pride of the Russian people.

A. N. Radishchev attached great importance to properly delivered education. In his book “Journey from St. Petersburg. to Moscow, Radishchev painted a difficult picture of the suffering of peasant children. He showed how, due to serfdom, their abilities, cheerfulness, and sociability, characteristic of peasant children, were dulled. He was passionately indignant against the inequality existing in Russia in the education and development of children.

Radishchev considered the goal of education to be the formation of a human citizen capable of fighting for the happiness of his people and treating his oppressors with hatred. In his work “A Conversation about Being a Son of the Fatherland, Radishchev said that the main task of education is to raise a person of high morality, who loves his homeland most of all, who devotes himself entirely to the struggle for the good of the people. Radishchev believed that only a revolutionary who fights autocracy can be a true patriot.

Putting forward a revolutionary task for education - the formation of a “son of the fatherland,” Radishchev radically diverged from the official tsarist pedagogy in the understanding of patriotism. While in. government institutions (cadet corps, institutes, schools, orphanages) tried to prepare children as faithful servants of the autocracy, and the church, false patriots defending the exploitative system, Radishchev raised the question of raising a true patriot, fighting the autocracy, not sparing his life in the event that if this sacrifice “brings strength and glory to the fatherland.” A true son of the fatherland hates with all his heart servility, deceit, lies, treachery, love of money... atrocity and fights against the carriers of these vices.

Criticizing the Russians (Betskoy) and Western European teachers (Rousseau and others), who came out at that time with the demand to isolate children from the surrounding life, the revolutionary Radishchev emphasized: “Man is born for the community... He said that removing children from real life contributes to educating individualists, people who think only about their own personal interests, who are unable to participate in the reconstruction of society, to be ideological fighters.

A. N. Radishchev introduced revolutionism and materialism into pedagogical theory. He argued that man is a part of nature, a material being, that the mental development of a child occurs along with the growth of the child’s body.

Pointing out that all children have natural abilities for development and upbringing, Radishchev at the same time believed that the formation of a person’s personality is not determined by his nature; but by the circumstances of life, the social conditions in which he finds himself. Unlike Betsky, he did not believe that it was possible to change society through education. On the contrary, he argued that only in a reasonable society can education be properly organized.

Radishchev stood for such an organization of education that would contribute to the development in the child of social interests and aspirations for the common good; said that in the development of a full-fledged human personality, the active participation of the student in the fight against everything inert for the sake of a better future plays a big role. He argued that a person’s character is formed by his activities for the common good, constant opposition to unjust laws, inert orders, and the ignorance of selfish people.

A. N. Radishchev was the founder of a new, revolutionary morality, based on hatred of the oppressors, the desire to fight them in the name of the happiness of the common people.

Insisting on the need to instill in children a true love for their homeland, for the people, A. N. Radishchev resolutely opposed the disdainful attitude towards national culture characteristic of the nobles, against their excessive passion for the French language. He believed that a true patriot must know his native language perfectly, that the honor and dignity of a true citizen require him to decisively fight against those who do not believe in the strength of their people.

Outlining a wide range of general educational knowledge that a person should master, Radishchev was significantly silent about religion. He believed that the autocracy and the church together, “in union,” as he said, oppress society, that religion dulls human abilities and paralyzes the will of people to fight.

The government of Catherine II took all measures to hide Radishchev’s works from society and erase the memory of him in the minds of the Russian people. However, the angry voice of the great patriot, who courageously called for a revolutionary struggle against serfdom and autocracy, was heard by the leading Russian people. His works, banned by the government, were secretly distributed in manuscript.

The enormous role of A. N. Radishchev was in the development of social thought and pedagogical theory in Russia, in the development of the Russian revolutionary movement and advanced pedagogy.

List of used literature

1. A. N. Dzhurinsky - History of pedagogy: Textbook. allowance for students pedagogical universities. - M.: Humanite. Ed. VLADOS Center, 2000. -432 p.

The strengthening of the economic and military power of Russia during the period of Peter I, the military victories of Russia during the reign of Catherine II, led to the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people and, as a consequence, to the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The dominant trend in Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century becomes classicism . Its ideological basis was the struggle for powerful national statehood and national culture.
Education. In the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II carried out reforms in the sphere of management, economics, class organization, and education. But Catherine II attached special importance to educational reform, since she understood that the success of social transformations depended on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability and desire to perceive new things.
Catherine II entrusted I.I. with carrying out reforms in the field of education. Betsky, his personal secretary and president of the Academy of Arts. In 1763, he presented Catherine II with a plan for school reform - “The General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”, which was based on the idea, popular in Europe, of “raising a new breed of people”, free from vices, who would then, through the family, spread the principles of the new education to the whole society. According to the author’s plan, a network of closed schools should be created in Russia, where Russian youth from 4-6 to 18-28 years old would be educated in complete isolation from the bad influence of society. Schools had to be class-based. For all new educational institutions I.I. Betskoy developed special regulations, according to which it was forbidden to beat and scold children, and the development of their natural qualities and inclinations, interest in learning was supposed to be encouraged.
Back in 1752, the Marine Noble Corps was opened for the children of nobles. In 1759, the Corps of Pages was opened, preparing nobles for court service. In 1764, the “Educational Society of Noble Maidens” was opened in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) for 200 girls. This was the first women's educational institution in Russia for girls from noble families. The Smolny Institute enjoyed the special patronage of Catherine II and I.I. Betsky, high society nobles. In 1766, the reformed Land Noble Corps was opened for noble children.
For children of other classes, vocational schools with a secondary special educational course were created. In 1772, a Commercial School was opened in Moscow at the Orphanage for the children of merchants and townspeople at the expense of P.A. Demidova. The Catherine Institute was opened in Moscow for girls from families of merchants and townspeople. Pedagogical schools were opened at the Smolny Institute (1765) and the Land Noble Corps (1766). Orphanages were opened for orphans in Moscow (1764), St. Petersburg (1770) and other cities. A special educational program was developed to transform orphans into people who absorbed the best ideas of the Enlightenment.
In the second half of the 18th century. The opening of vocational art schools continues. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was founded in St. Petersburg. The Academy became the first higher art institution in Russia, within whose walls highly professional architects, sculptors, painters and graphic artists grew up. In 1773, a Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage.
The opening in 1755 of the country's first higher civil educational institution, Moscow University, was of great importance for the spread of education in Russia. Its curator was the influential nobleman I.I. Shuvalov, but M.V. played a huge role in the opening of the university. Lomonosov. He developed a project for organizing the university; he sought to ensure that the university was a classless and secular educational institution. In the first year of its opening, Moscow University admitted students to three faculties: philosophy, law and medicine. The first students were predominantly from the common community. A special gymnasium with two departments was created at the university - one for the children of nobles, the other for the children of merchants and commoners. Four years later, the same gymnasium was opened in Kazan.
A qualitatively new fact in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a comprehensive school. Separately created educational institutions have not yet formed a system of public education. In 1772, by decree of Catherine II, a Commission was created on the establishment of schools, which included prominent teachers from Europe specially invited to Russia. The commission developed a plan for the creation of four-year schools in provincial cities and two-year schools in district towns. The training programs included mathematics, history, geography, physics, architecture, Russian and foreign languages. As a result, a comprehensive school system began to take shape in Russia. In 25 provincial cities, main four-year schools were opened, similar in type to a secondary school. Small two-year schools were opened in district towns. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced in schools, and teaching methods and disciplines were developed. Continuity in education was achieved by the commonality of the curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.
By the end of the 18th century. there were 550 educational institutions in the country with a student population of 60-70 thousand people. So, in the second half of the 18th century. A system of public education was created in Russia.
The appearance of new textbooks was important for the development of education. Professors from Moscow University and scientists from the Academy of Sciences took an active part in their writing. In 1757, “Russian Grammar” was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the already outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main textbook on the Russian language. The great Russian scientist also wrote a textbook on mining, “The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining.” In the 60s A student at Moscow University, D. Anichkov, compiled a textbook on mathematics, which remained the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. In 1776, professor at Moscow University H.A. Chebotarev wrote a textbook on geography. For a long time, all schools and gymnasiums used the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” compiled by Catherine II and I.I., as a textbook. Betsky. The book popularly outlined the views of Western European enlighteners on such concepts as “soul,” “virtue,” and man’s duties towards God, society, the state, and his neighbors.

Book business. In connection with the spread of education in the second half of the 18th century. Interest in books is growing in society. To satisfy the demand for printed products, in 1783 Catherine II issued a decree “On Free Printing Houses,” which for the first time granted everyone the right to open printing houses. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, however, during the period of the struggle of Catherine II and Paul I against the penetration of the ideas of the French Revolution into Russia, all private printing houses were closed.
The topics of books changed, and the number of original scientific and artistic publications increased. In 1768, in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of Catherine II, the “Meeting for the Translation of Foreign Books” was created. It was engaged in the translation and publication of works of ancient classics and French enlighteners and operated until 1783. In 1773, the famous educator N.I. Novikov organized a “Society Trying to Print Books” in St. Petersburg, but its activity was short-lived, since N.I. Novikov faced great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.
The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly educational and scientific literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov began publishing the first Russian literary and scientific journal, “Monthly Works for the Benefit and Entertainment of Employees” (1755). The first private magazine “Hardworking Bee” (1759), published by A.P., was also published in the academic printing house. Sumarokov.
In the second half of the 18th century. Periodicals are appearing not only in capital cities, but also in provincial cities. In 1786, the magazine “Solitary Poshekhonets” began to be published in Yaroslavl, and in 1788 in Tambov, the weekly provincial newspaper “Tambov News”. Since 1789, the magazine “The Irtysh Turning into Ippokrena” was published in Tobolsk.
A special role in the publication and distribution of books belonged to the outstanding Russian educator and public figure N.I. Novikov (1744–1818). N.I. Novikov, like other Russian educators, considered education to be the basis of social change, so he saw the spread of education as a service to society. From 1779 to 1789 he rented the printing house of Moscow University, in which he published about a third of all books published in Russia at that time (approximately 1000 titles). These were textbooks, magazines, political and philosophical treatises of Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, works of folk art, and Masonic literature.
N.I. Novikov contributed to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces. At the end of the 18th century. There were about 40 bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg, bookstores already existed in 17 provincial cities.
In the second half of the 18th century. The number of libraries at universities, gymnasiums, and closed educational institutions is growing. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to operate. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, in which not only students of the Academy, but also anyone could work.
In the 80s - 90s. XVIII century The first public libraries appeared in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk). Paid libraries appeared at bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The science. In the second half of the 18th century. The largest scientific centers in Russia were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The brilliant professors S.E. taught at Moscow University. Desnitsky, D.S. Anichkov, N.N. Popovsky, A.A. Barsov and many others.
The spread of education in Russia and the rapid development of world natural science contributed to the formation and development of Russian science. But in those years the Academy of Sciences was dominated by invited Germans. German scientists prevented the promotion of Russian scientists, so Russians were practically absent from the Academy of Sciences.
The first Russian scientist to become a full Russian professor at the Academy of Sciences was M.V. Lomonosov . He was born in 1711 in a distant Pomeranian village near Kholmogory. Already as an adult young man, in 1730 Mikhail Lomonosov, having obtained an annual passport, set off with one of the fish trains to distant Moscow. There he, hiding his origin, entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Having successfully graduated from the Academy, Lomonosov, along with 11 other graduates, was sent in 1736 to take a course in science at the St. Petersburg Academy. Soon he was sent to Germany, to Marburg, to Professor Wolf, and then to Freiburg to the famous metallurgist, Professor Henkel. The five years spent abroad were years of serious independent study for Lomonosov. In June 1741 M.V. Lomonosov returns to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and becomes an adjunct professor of physics Kraft. In 1745 he was confirmed as a professor of chemistry and became a full member of the Academy. In 1748, overcoming the resistance of German scientists, he achieved the creation of a chemical laboratory. Range of interests of M.V. Lomonosov as a scientist was enormous. He conducted research in physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy and other sciences. M.V. Lomonosov was the creator of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter, which served as a solid basis for the further development of fundamental natural sciences in the 18th century. In 1748, in a letter to L. Euler, for the first time in the world, he formulated the general law of conservation of matter and motion, which is of great importance for understanding the entire process of the universe. In 1756, he carried out classical experiments that experimentally substantiated the law of conservation of matter, and formulated an assumption explaining the phenomenon of heating of bodies as a consequence of the movement of particles. This brilliant guess was far ahead of its era. The great Russian scientist worked a lot on issues related to the mysteries of the origin of the Universe; he was responsible for the discovery of the atmosphere on Venus and a number of other important observations in the field of astronomy. He was a brilliant experimenter and inventor, an innovator in many fields of technology, mining, metallurgy, porcelain and glass production, salts and paints, and construction equipment. His multifaceted talent also manifested itself in the humanities. He was an outstanding poet and theorist in matters of versification. His contribution to the formation of the Russian literary language is enormous. M.V. Lomonosov was interested in both the art of mosaics and the study of the history of his homeland. The result of his works on history were the “Brief Russian Chronicler” and “Ancient Russian History” created by him. M.V. Lomonosov contributed to the promotion of national personnel in Russian science. The first professors of Moscow University N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov were his students.
Academic expeditions of the 60s-70s were of great importance for the development of natural science. XVIII century. Academician P.S. Pallas undertook expeditions to the regions of the Volga region, the Urals, and Crimea. Academician I.I. Lepekhin explored the Urals region and the White Sea coast. Academician Falk studied the regions of Eastern Russia and the North Caucasus. Berdanes explored the Kyrgyz steppe, I.S. Georgi - Ural, Bashkiria, Altai, Baikal. Academician S.G. Gmelin studied the Don basin, the lower Volga, and the shores of the Caspian Sea. Scientist N.Ya. Ozertsovsky explored the north-west of Russia, V.F. Zuev - Black Sea region and Crimea. The rich materials on zoology, botany, ethnography and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific study of the nature and culture of the peoples of Russia. In 1745, the Atlas of the Russian Empire was published; this became a scientific event of world significance, since by the middle of the 18th century. Only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, the promotion of geographical knowledge increased significantly. In the 70s The Geographical Lexicon of the Russian State, the first geographical dictionary in Russia, was published. Geography has become a compulsory subject in all educational institutions.
The development of manufacturing production contributed to the development of technical thought. In 1760, R. Glinkov invented a mechanical engine for spinning machines, which replaced the labor of 9 people. I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) - a genius, master of the Kolyvanovo-Voznesensky plant in Altai - first put forward the idea of ​​​​using steam power as an engine. In 1765, he designed the world's first universal steam engine. A few days before its launch, I.I. Polzunov died. The machine worked for several months, and only as a result of a minor breakdown it failed. Another self-taught mechanic - I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818) was an unrivaled watchmaker. He created a clock that showed the seasons, months, hours, minutes, seconds, phases of the moon, the time of sunrise and sunset in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He also invented many original devices and instruments, improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, and created a semaphore telegraph. But these inventions, like the inventions of I.I. Kulibin, also did not have wide practical application.
Of the humanities, the greatest development occurred in the 18th century. received history. The main achievements of historical thought of that time are associated with the activities of M.V. Lomonosov and V.N. Tatishcheva. M.V. Lomonosov first raised the question of the origin of the Slavs and highly appreciated their ancient culture. His "Brief Russian Chronicle" was the main history textbook. Labor V.N. Tatishchev's "Russian History" was the first attempt at scientific coverage of Russian history. An important fact of Russian historiography of the 18th century. became the historical works of M.M. Shcherbatov (1733-1790) and I.N. Boltin (1735-1792), in which an attempt was also made to give a general concept of Russian history. Increased attention to history was expressed in the dissemination of historical literature, the revival of interest in folk legends and songs, and the emergence of historical themes in literature and art. This was a significant moment in the formation of national identity.
Journalism. The emergence of journalism is associated with Moscow University. Assessor of Moscow University, poet M.M. Kheraskov began publishing the first magazine in Russia, “Useful Amusement.” At the same time, university history professor I. Reichel published the magazine “Collected Best Works,” in which the talented playwright D.I. collaborated in his youth. Fonvizin.
In the 60-70s of the 18th century. In journalism, the satirical direction became widespread, to which Catherine II also made her contribution. In 1769, the Empress founded the satirical magazine "All Things", the official editor of which was her Secretary of State G.V. Kozlovsky. She needed this publication in order to express her point of view on socially significant problems. She published several articles in the magazine in which she explained in an allegorical form the reason for the failures of the Statutory Commission. She also needed the magazine to ridicule various vices in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment. This gave rise to a lively debate in society about the role of satire in society - whether it should fight abstract vices or their specific carriers. The main opponent of the empress was N.I. Novikov. During these same years, he published his satirical publications "Drone" (1769-1770) and, especially, "Painter" (1772-1773). In his satirical sketches N.I. Novikov began to develop the peasant theme in Russian artistic culture, which turned out to be deep and fruitful. The pages of the magazines were full of sincere sympathy for the difficult and powerless existence of the Russian peasant breadwinner. Even the epigraph to the magazine "Drone" - "They work, and you eat their work" - immediately attracted the attention of his contemporaries. From now on, compassion for the poverty and misfortune of ordinary “villagers” will become the “eternal theme” of Russian journalism, as well as the entire culture.
Socio-political thought. Second half of the 18th century. characterized by the growth of Russian national consciousness. There is a growing interest in society in the historical past of Russia, in the role and place of the Russian people in world history. Gradually, the main currents of Russian social and political thought began to take shape, finally taking shape in the 19th century.
Catherine II expressed an optimistic view of Russian history. On this issue, one of her main opponents was Prince M.M. Shcherbatov is a statesman and historian, the author of the multi-volume “Russian History” and a number of journalistic works. He expressed his attitude to the surrounding reality in the pamphlet “On the Damage of Morals in Russia,” which was first published only in the middle of the 19th century. "Free Russian Printing House" A.I. Herzen in London. For Shcherbatov of the 18th century. - a time of general decline in morals, to which he contrasted the ideals of pre-Petrine Rus'. Essentially, M.M. Shcherbatov became the forerunner of the Slavophiles.
Another direction of Russian social thought of the second half of the 18th century. became Freemasonry- a religious and ethical movement that arose in England at the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, the first Masonic lodges appeared in the 1730s. Freemasonry became most widespread in Russia in the middle of the 18th century, when the most prominent statesmen became members of Freemasonry - the Chernyshev brothers, the Panin brothers, R.I. Vorontsov and others. The poets A.P. were also Freemasons. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, architect V.I. Bazhenov and many others. The Masons proclaimed the construction of a society of free people through self-purification and self-improvement, liberation from all class and national boundaries. In Russia, the practical activities of the Freemasons were aimed at educating the people, which attracted famous people of that time to the ranks of the Freemasons.
At first, Catherine II treated Freemasonry as a fashionable eccentricity that quickly passed away. But in the 70s. Freemasons become disillusioned with the ideas of enlightenment; mystical knowledge begins to dominate in their spiritual quests; they believed that by discovering some mystical secret of the universe they would be able to accomplish what they could not do with the help of reason. These new ideas, combined with mysterious rituals, attracted a fairly large number of supporters to Freemasonry. And then it became dangerous from the point of view of the authorities - after all, it was almost about a new ideology with a religious connotation. After this, Catherine II decided to ban Masonic organizations in Russia.
The fate of N.I. became an example for others. Novikov, who for many years rented it since the late 70s. The printing house of Moscow University, in addition to books of an educational nature, published many Masonic publications. When hundreds of copies of prohibited Masonic works were discovered in his warehouses in 1792, N.I. Novikov was arrested and put on trial. Until Paul's accession to the throne, he will be imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
Another direction of Russian social thought of this time is associated with the name A. N. Radishcheva(1749–1802). It is generally accepted that the formation of revolutionary ideology in Russia began with his socio-political views. Having received an education abroad and becoming a fan of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Radishchev gave them a radical character. Such views formed a decisive rejection of the existing order in the country and, above all, serfdom. In general, a critical attitude to reality, generated by the ideas of the Enlightenment, developed in Europe, but there the bourgeoisie, fighting for its rights, became the bearer of revolutionary ideology. Radishchev did not see any differences in the historical development and position of Russia and Europe. It seemed to him that a revolutionary coup could solve all the problems of society and bring true freedom to the people. These ideas were expressed by Radishchev in his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” published in “1790 (Radishchev printed the book in 600 copies, only 25 copies went on sale). The book aroused “great curiosity of the public.” Catherine II , having familiarized herself with this work, wrote in its margins: “...A rebel, worse than Pugachev." The Empress was outraged not by the criticism of serfdom as such (she herself was thinking about abolishing it), but rather by the rebellion against her superiors, against her power. Radishchev argued that that things were bad in the state, that the people were living much worse than she thought. Catherine was convinced that this was a lie and slander and, no matter how bad serfdom was, her subjects simply could not be unhappy. By order of the empress, the book was printed was confiscated, and its author was exiled to the Ilimsk prison (completely amnestied only in 1801 by Alexander I).
Thus, A.N. Radishchev was the first in Russia to connect the problem of the abolition of serfdom with the need to eliminate the autocracy.
Literature. Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. was predominantly aristocratic. Due to the specific nature of working conditions, folk art was oral; it included such genres as songs, tales, satirical tales, and humoresques. The satirical genre of folk art was extremely rich and varied. The stories “The Tale of Princess Kiselikha”, “The Tale of the Pakhrinskaya Village of Kamkina”, the soldier satire A Sorrowful Tale”, “The Petition of the Crimean Soldiers”, etc. became widely popular among the people.
Noble literature developed in the genre of classicism. During this period, a new fiction emerged with a developed system of genres (ode, elegy, fable, tragedy, comedy, story, novel). A new system of versification and literary language became essential elements of this literature. For the first time principles syllabic-tonic versification formulated by the outstanding literary critic, historian, founder of Russian philology V.K. Trediakovsky (1703-1768). This system, which replaced syllabic verse, is based on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. It lies at the basis of Russian poetry to this day.
“The name of the founder and father of Russian literature,” according to V.G. Belinsky, rightfully belongs to M.V. Lomonosov. Poetic creativity occupied a large place in the spiritual world of the great Russian scientist. As a result of studying ancient, New Latin, German and French lyrics, M.V. Lomonosov established in Russian poetry the poetic genres of European literature of that time: religious and philosophical ode, solemn ode, etc.; epic poem, epistle, idyll, epigram, etc., as well as various poetic meters. He created the theory of the “three calms”. M.V. Lomonosov taught Russian poets that “calm” can be “high, medium, low.” He must write speeches, odes, and poems of heroic content in a high style. A high syllable should be distinguished by pathos. Tragedies, satires, and elegies are written in “medium calm.” In these genres M.V. Lomonosov allowed “sayings” that are common in the Russian language. Using such words, one should still “be careful not to descend into meanness.” And, finally, in the works of “low calm” - comedy, song, epigram, fable - “common people’s low words” could be used “by consideration”. The original composition of the poem “Conversation with Anacreon” (from the 50s to the early 60s of the 18th century) formulated the main features of Lomonosov’s poetry: citizenship, patriotism, recognition of Russia’s peaceful mission in modern politics, the poet’s high self-esteem. Written in the spirit of the classic Roman tragedy Seneca, Lomonosov's plays "Tamira and Selim" and "Demophon" were an attempt to create a Russian tragedy. Lomonosov developed iambic tetrameter and hexameter, the classic ten-line odic stanza, and precise and figurative language, which have remained in Russian poetry for a long time. Personality M.V. Lomonosov, his scientific and literary activities played a primary role in the development of the consciousness of Russian society and left a deep mark on the history of Russian culture.
The founder of the new Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717 ―1777), poet and playwright. He came from an old noble family, studied at the Land Noble Corps, where he began to write poetry, imitating V.K. Trediakovsky. Poems by A.P. Sumarokov bear a strong stamp of M.V. Lomonosov, but soon the poet chose a different genre, which brought him popularity - love songs. From the songs of A.P. Sumarokov moved on to love tragedies in verse. Before his first tragedies - "Khorev" (1747), "Hamlet" (1748), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750) - Russian drama lived in the traditions of the so-called. school drama of the 17th century. with its allegorical plots and conventionally mythological characters. A.P. For the first time in the history of Russian theater, Sumarokov combined love themes with social and philosophical issues. The appearance of tragedies served as an incentive for the emergence of the Russian Theater, whose director A.P. Sumarkov was in 1756-1761. In the late 50s - early 60s. Sumarokov writes fables directed against bureaucratic tyranny, bribery, and inhumane treatment of serfs by landowners. In the 70s he writes his best comedies - “Cuckold by Imagination”, “Mother - Daughter’s Companion”, “Crazy Woman” (all 1772), and tragedies “Dmitry the Pretender” (1771), “Mstislav” (1774). Sumarokov's works contributed to the education of human dignity, humanism, high morality and honor. Being a supporter of serfdom, he criticized its extremes.
Creativity D.I. Fonvizin (1745–1792) marked the beginning of the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature. In his works he criticized certain shortcomings of serfdom. In 1764 he composed his first poetic comedy, Corion. The action in it takes place in a village near Moscow and consists of a presentation of the sentimental story of lovers Corion and Xenovia, separated by a misunderstanding and happily united in the finale. In the 1760s D.I. Fonvizin came up with the idea of ​​an original Russian satirical comedy. The first example of this kind was his comedy "The Brigadier" (1766-69), in which ignorance, bribery, and servility to all foreign "noble class" were ridiculed. Fonvizin gained fame and universal recognition from the comedy “The Minor” (1779–1781). This is a “comedy of manners”, depicting the domestic life of a wild and dark family of provincial landowners. At the center of the comedy is the image of Mrs. Prostakova, a tyrant and despot in her own family and among her peasants. Her cruelty in dealing with others is compensated by her unreasonable and ardent tenderness for her son Mitrofanushka, who, thanks to such maternal upbringing, grows up spoiled, rude, ignorant and completely unfit for any business. Prostakova is confident that she can do whatever she wants, because a decree on “noble freedom” has been given for this. Opposed to her and her relatives, Starodum, Pravdin, Sophia and Milon believe that the freedom of a nobleman lies in the right to study, and then serve society with his mind and knowledge, which justifies the nobility of the noble title. In the finale, retribution comes: Prostakova is cut off from her estate and abandoned by her own son.
The largest poet of the late 18th century. was G.R. Derzhavin(1743–1816). He created his own poetic style, which found its most vivid expression in the poems “Ode on the Death of Prince Meshchersky” (1779), “Ode to Felitsa” (1782), “God” (1784), “Autumn during the Siege of Ochakov” (1788) , “Vision of Murza” (1789), “Waterfall” (1791–94), etc. The first “Ode to Felitsa,” which established Derzhavin’s poetic fame, aroused rave reviews from many contemporaries. It brilliantly reflected some important features characterizing the reign of Catherine II: the growth of Russian statehood, the heroism of military victories, national patriotism. Derzhavin's poetic innovation manifested itself in the destruction of the purity of the classic genre: he combined elements of ode and satire in one poem. The combination of the themes of ode and satire within one work led to a combination of “high” and “low” “calm”. Derzhavin introduced elements of lively colloquial speech into poetic language. He angrily condemned social vices and denounced high-ranking officials (“To Rulers and Judges,” 1780–87, “Nobleman,” 1774–94). In the last years of his life, Derzhavin also turned to drama. Beginning in 1804, he wrote a number of tragedies and other plays ("Dobrynya", "Pozharsky", "Herod and Miriamne", "Eupraxia", etc.). Since 1811, Derzhavin was a member of the literary society "Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word." Here he “noticed” young A.S. Pushkin.
At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. in Russian literature is formed sentimentalism , marked by an emotional perception of the world around us, an increased interest in a particular person and his feelings. The hero of works of art is a simple man. The flourishing of sentimentalism is associated with the work of N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) - Russian thinker, historian, poet. In 1792, his story “Poor Liza” was published, which became one of the first works of Russian sentimental literature of the 18th century. The love story of the poor girl Lisa and the nobleman Erast found a wide response in the hearts of readers. For the first time in Russian literature N.M. Karamzin showed a living person with his natural feelings and experiences. The expression “even peasant women know how to love” was perceived by the reader as the discovery of their own world of feelings and experiences, the ability to love and suffer.
Enlightenment literature of the 18th century at its core carried a humanistic and satirical beginning. But at the same time, meeting the requirements of the era, the literature of Russian classicism created the image of a new man - a patriot and citizen. She contributed to the establishment of the extra-class value of man and resolutely fought against the cruelties of serfdom.
Theater. Mid-18th century - an important stage in the development of the national theater. In 1756, the first Russian dramatic professional theater was created in St. Petersburg, the basis of which was a troupe of Yaroslavl actors led by F.G. Volkov(1729–1763). F.G. Volkov was born into a wealthy merchant family in Yaroslavl. The hopes of his relatives to introduce him to the merchant business were not justified, since from a young age he lived with the idea of ​​theater. In 1750 F.G. In Yaroslavl, Volkov organized an amateur drama troupe. The troupe's performances were so successful that rumors of its success reached the capital. In 1752, Yaroslavl residents were called to St. Petersburg to organize a Russian public theater. In 1756, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna issued a decree on the creation of the Russian Public Theater, which included a significant part of F.G.’s troupe. Volkova. In this theater F.G. Volkov occupied the position of the first tragedian. The first director of this theater was the famous poet and playwright A.P. Sumarokov. Inspired play by F.G. Volkova captivated the audience, but his life was short-lived: having caught a cold in the bitter February frost during a masquerade procession on the occasion of the coronation of Catherine II, he died in 1763 at the age of 34 years.
In the second half of the 18th century. Free, amateur and serf theaters operated in St. Petersburg. Widely known were the imperial theater, the theater of the “small court” (Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich), the school theater at the Land Noble Corps, the theaters of the Academy of Arts, and the Institute of Noble Maidens. In 1779, a private theater arose on Tsaritsyn Meadow (Field of Mars), directed by the poet I.A. Dmitrievsky. The plays of D.I. were staged for the first time on the stage of this theater. Fonvizina. The theater did not last long: in 1783 it was closed by decree of Catherine II. Italian, German and French troupes continued to flourish in the northern capital.
In Moscow, regular theatrical performances were performed at the university by the Italian troupe D. Locatelli. The theater was under the authority of the director of Moscow University M. M. Kheraskov, who himself wrote plays for it. Russian actors were also invited to the theater; among them were university students. It was in this theater that the later famous playwright and writer D.I. began his career as an actor (they were recruited from students to play in Russian plays). Fonvizin. In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened, whose repertoire included drama, opera and ballet performances. Theater troupes existed in capitals and some provincial cities.
A peculiar phenomenon of Russian culture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was serf theater. Drama and opera performances were successfully staged in the serf theaters of A.L. Naryshkina, N.S. Titova, G.A. Potemkin, the Yusupovs, the Shuvalovs. Some of the serf theaters, for example Count N.P. Sheremetev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, were widely known among theater lovers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on the fortress stage; at the Sheremetev Theater she was famous for her magnificent performance by P.I. Kovalev-Zhemchugova (1768-1803).
Music. In the second half of the 18th century. The musical life of Russia has changed dramatically. While maintaining its original appearance, it became more European. Choral partes singing is in decline. This was due to the appearance of highly educated Italian musicians in Russia, who brought the genre of secular music to Russia.
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Folk song has taken a strong place in Russian song culture, with adherents in all levels of society. About this time the poet G.R. Derzhavin said: “It was an age of songs.” In everyday life, songs were sung “folk”, “bookish”, Russian, gypsy, peasant, urban, amateur and professional, “Russian” and imported from the West.
At the end of the 18th century. a genre has appeared chamber lyrical song (romance), the text of which was usually borrowed from Russian poetry. The flourishing of this genre is associated with the work of two wonderful Russian musicians - F.M. Dubyansky and O.A. Kozlovsky. F.M. Dubyansky went down in the history of Russian art as the author of only six romances, but which are the pinnacles of this genre. His romances are a world of intimate experiences, combining sophistication and open emotionality, which was then highly valued by song lovers. F.M. Dubyansky “woke up famous” after the sentimental romance he composed “The Gray Dove Moans” to the verses of I.I. Dmitrieva:
The blue dove moans;
He groans day and night;
His dear little friend
Flew away for a long time.
He doesn't coo anymore
And he doesn’t bite the wheat;
Everything is sad and sad
And quietly sheds tears.
“The Gray Dove” is sung in Russia to this day.
O.A. Kozlovsky was the author of symphonic, theatrical, chamber and march music. A Pole by nationality, he came to Russia as a young man, and in Russia his talent as a musician was fully revealed. The composer took part in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. and rose to the rank of prime minister. Great glory to O.A. Kozlovsky was brought a polonaise “Thunder of Victory, Ring Out!” based on poems by G.R. Derzhavin, dedicated to the capture of the Turkish fortress Izmail by Russian troops in 1789. Before the appearance of the official Russian national anthem "God Save the Tsar!" in 1833 the polonaise was sung as the national anthem. The composer also wrote music based on poems by famous poets of that time - A.P. Sumarokova, Yu.A. Neleditsky-Meletsky, G.R. Derzhavina. The exaggerated pathos and excessive sentimentality of his music were in great demand at that time.
Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The theatrical repertoire was dominated by comic opera - a special genre, opera with dialogue, where vocal numbers alternate with conversations of the characters. The operas featured serfs offended by their landowners, good and evil nobles, cunning millers, naive and beautiful girls. The most beloved musical comedy of the 18th century. became the opera by M.M. Sokolovsky to the text of the writer A.O. Ablesimov “The Miller is a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker” (posted in 1779 in Moscow, then in St. Petersburg). The plot of "The Miller..." is entertaining and simple. The characters of the play are the smart and cunning miller Thaddeus, the naive girl Anyuta, the always quarreling peasant couple Ankudin and Fetinya, and the handsome village guy Filimon. The Miller, the main character of the opera, was truly a rogue. He pretended to be an all-powerful sorcerer and completely fooled his simple-minded neighbors. But it all ends with the cheerful wedding of Anyuta and her fiancé Filimon. The music of the opera was composed by M. M. Sokolovsky from Russian songs; it is assumed that since 1792 the opera was performed with music by E. I. Fomin. Also popular was the opera by V.A. Pashkevich to the words of M.A. Matinsky "St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor, or As you live, so you will be known" (1792).
In the last third of the 18th century, the Russian school of composition was born: Russian musicians created an independent professional tradition that became an integral part of European artistic culture. Its formation is associated with the names of M.S. Berezovsky, V.A. Pashkevich and I.E. Khandoshkina.
During the time of Catherine II, Russian choral music began to develop in a secular direction. The origins of the new style of choral music were M.S. Berezovsky(1745–1777). The pinnacle of his creative quest was the still famous concert “Do not reject me in my old age,” created in the second half of the 70s. The work was based on the text of the 70th Psalm of David from the Old Testament “Psalter”: “Do not reject me in times of passion; when my strength fails, do not forsake me... Let those who are hostile to my soul be ashamed and disappear; let those who seek be covered with shame and dishonor I'm angry." The pathos of this psalm is timeless. The pathos of prayer found perfect embodiment in the four movements of Berezovsky's concert. The main feature of the concert is that in all four parts of the concert the general thought is “do not reject me..”, a request - a prayer calling on the Almighty. And this was the enormous emotional power of this work. With the creation of this work M.S. Berezovsky reached the pinnacle of perfection, knew success and glory. Among his other famous choral concerts are “The Lord reigns!”, “In the beginning are you, Lord!”, May God rise again!”, etc.
V.A. Pashkevich(1742–1797) - one of the first Russian opera composers. His first Russian opera "Misfortune from the Coach" based on the text by Ya.B. Princess. The plot of the opera had an anti-serfdom meaning: in order to buy a fashionable carriage, the landowner wanted to sell his serf as a recruit. Composers of comic operas have always faced the problem of which lines of the libretto to set to music and which to save for the spoken dialogue of the characters. V.A. Pashkevich found a simple but effective principle of the relationship between music and conversational genres. With this opera the national musical theater was born. The best work of Pashkevich is considered to be the opera “St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor” (another name is “As you live, so you will be known”, 1792) based on the comedy by M.M. Matinsky. This is the first opera to show the life of a merchant. The morals of this environment did not evoke much sympathy from Matinsky, who described such vices as greed, a tendency to deceive and cheat, malice and betrayal. The essence of the plot is as follows: the merchant Skvalygin gives his daughter Khavronya in marriage to the official Kryuchkodey. Together with his future son-in-law, he embarks on all sorts of frauds - forges business papers, deceives people. Negative characters are contrasted with positive ones: merchant Khvalimov, officer Pryamikov. In the end, the tricks of Skvaligin and Kryuchkodey are exposed, justice triumphs. V.A. Pashkevich was also at the origins of the development of Russian national symphonic music. He was one of the first to try to embody the original sound of Russian folk instruments - horns, pipes, balalaikas, gusli - in the orchestral music of his operas.
I.E. Khandoshkin(1747 - 1804) - "Russian Paganini" - known as a violinist with unique technical abilities, as an outstanding composer and teacher, as a conductor and collector of folk songs. His creative heritage includes dozens of works. His father was a serf, but, having been freed, in 1740 he settled in St. Petersburg. At the age of 13, he was enrolled in the Oranienbaum orchestra as a student violinist, then transferred to the court troupe of musicians. Since 1762 I.E. Khandoshkin is appointed director of the court ballet orchestra. 70-80s ― the period of the most intense performing activity. All his life he was devoted to one instrument - the violin. During these same years he wrote his first compositions. His performing technique was very high; there was no violinist equal to him at that time. I.E. Khandoshkin managed to introduce into his performance elements of technique coming from national instrumental traditions. He writes a grandiose cycle of 40 variations on the theme of the folk "Kalinushka", during the performance of which he shows a wide variety of performing techniques. In his music, for the first time, there was an organic fusion of European instrumental language and Russian folklore.
Another major composer of the late 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries. was D.S. Bortnyansky(1751–1825). The development of church music is associated with his name. He was born in the city of Glukhov, from where the court chapel drew young recruits. At the age of 7 he came to St. Petersburg and was sent to be raised in the Court Singing Chapel. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself drew attention to the talented boy, and at the age of 17 he went as a pensioner to Italy, where he stayed for 10 years. He wrote operas, sonatas, cantatas. Upon arrival in Russia, he was appointed conductor of the court choir. 80s - a genuine creative takeoff. During the reign of Emperor Pavel Petrovich, in 1796, B. was made director of the court singing chapel. The main achievements of D.S. Bortnyansky are associated with choral polyphonic church music. He followed the path of musical classicism. The court chapel was staffed by the best voices of Russia, the choral performance was conducted by D.S. Bortnyansky was brought to perfection of execution. The main thing is D.S. Bortnyansky energetically opposed the licentiousness of singing that reigned in Orthodox churches, when arias from Italian operas were introduced into church singing. He established order in church singing. His music does not contain those spectacular and artificial techniques that could entertain the worshiper.
The composer's musical heritage includes 35 concerts for a four-voice choir and 10 concerts for two choirs. The composer's works amaze with the variety of feelings and moods. There are solemn, festive, majestic and epic concerts. The most poetic is concert No. 25 “We will never be silent”, concert No. 32 “Tell me, Lord, my death”, No. 7 “Cherubimskaya”. He also writes the opera "The Feast of the Senor" to the libretto of Count G.I. Chernyshev, "Falcon" to the libretto by Lafermière, his best opera "The Rival Son, or the New Stratonic" to the text by Lafermière. His song “Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” to the words of V.A. became widely known. Zhukovsky.
Music by D.S. Bortnyansky had a huge influence on the formation of the Russian music school, on the work of composers throughout the 19th century.
One of the main features of Russian musical life was public concerts. They have been held regularly in St. Petersburg since the 70s, and in the 80s the real heyday of concert life began. Virtuosos with European famous names performed on the stage - Abbot Vogler, pianist I.V. Gesler, singer L.R. Toddy, harpsichordist I.G.V. Palschau and many other famous musicians.
And yet, the main source of shaping the musical tastes of Russians was playing music at home. They played music a lot and willingly in country estates, in St. Petersburg high society salons, and in modest city apartments.

Ballet. By the middle of the 18th century. ballet gained great fame in Europe. The ballet troupe of the French royal court was famous, and the royal courts of Europe and the European aristocracy sought to have ballet troupes. Numerous dancers and dance teachers easily found work. The women's ballet costume became much lighter and freer, and the lines of the body could be seen underneath. The dancers abandoned high-heeled shoes, replacing them with light heelless shoes. The men's costume also became less bulky: tight trousers down to the knees and stockings also made it possible to see the dancer's figure. Each innovation made dancing more meaningful and dance technique higher. By the middle of the 18th century. In Europe, ballet gradually separated from opera and became an independent art. In Europe, the French ballet school was famous for its grace and plasticity, but it was characterized by a certain coldness and formality of performance. Therefore, choreographers and artists were looking for new means of expression.
In Russia, from the first half of the 18th century. ballet was introduced by choreographers and dance teachers from Austria, Italy and France. In 1759-1764. Famous choreographers, the Austrian F. Hilferding (1710–1768) and the Italian G. Angiolini (1731–1803), worked in Russia. They staged ballets based on mythological themes. In particular, in 1772 the ballet “Semira” was staged based on the tragedy of the Russian writer A.P. Sumarokov. Possessing its rich dance folklore, Russia turned out to be very fertile ground for the development of ballet theater. Comprehending the science taught by foreigners, the Russians, in turn, introduced their own intonations into the foreign dance. Interest in ballet was constantly growing. The first ballet school in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg in 1738. In 1773, a ballet department was opened in the Moscow Orphanage - the forerunner and foundation of the Moscow Choreographic School. One of his first teachers and choreographers was the Austrian L. Paradise. It should be noted that the Moscow troupe, created as a public troupe, was distinguished by greater democracy and independence than the official St. Petersburg troupe. Since then, two schools of ballet art have begun to emerge in our country: Petersburg- imperial, strict, academic, and Moscow- more democratic, poetic, committed to comedy and genre ballets. These differences exist to this day. The St. Petersburg ballet is distinguished by classical rigor and academicism, while the Moscow ballet is distinguished by bravura, powerful jumps, and athleticism. In 1776, an opera and ballet enterprise (Petrovsky Theater) of Prince P. V. Urusov and his English companion M. G. Medox was opened in Moscow, which later became the basis for the creation of the Bolshoi Theater ballet troupe . In St. Petersburg, the first public Bolshoi Theater (Kamenny), in the future the Imperial Mariinsky Theater, opened in 1783. In 1803, his ballet troupe separated from the opera company, occupying a privileged position among other genres of theater.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russian ballet developed in the general mainstream of the theater of classicism. The ideal of the aesthetics of classicism was “ennobled nature”, and the norm of a work of art was strict proportionality, expressed in the form of three unities - place, time and action. Within the framework of these normative requirements, the center of action became a person, his fate, his actions and experiences, dedicated to one goal, marked by a single all-consuming passion. The genre of heroic-tragedy ballet corresponded to the basic principles of classicism. In the second half of the 18th century. in St. Petersburg, ballets were staged by the Austrian F. Hilferding and the Italians G. Canziani and G. Angiolini. These performances, with their sharp conflicts and intense action, were
new on the Russian stage. But the most famous choreographer was the Italian G. Solomonini, who worked in Vienna with J. Nover himself, an innovative French choreographer who replaced the “divertissement” with an “effective” ballet with a clearly defined plot, with specially written music, and a harmonious composition of dances. . On the Russian stage, Solomonini promoted Novera's ballets. In particular, in 1800, at the Petrovsky Theater, he staged Novera’s ballet Medea and Jason. In the same year, he staged his own production of "Vain Precaution" in the choreography of J. Dauberval (it was called "The Deceived Old Woman", 1800).
By the end of the 18th century. serf troupes appeared in the estates of the counts Sheremetev (Kuskovo, Ostankino), Yusupov (Arkhangelskoye) and others near Moscow. By that time, St. Petersburg and Moscow had court and public theaters. Major foreign composers, choreographers (Italians F. Morelli, P. Pinucci, J. Solomoni, etc.) and foreign performers worked in them. But there were already wonderful Russian dancers - A. S. Sergeeva, V. M. Mikhailova, T. S. Bublikov, G. I. Raikov, N. P. Berilova.

Question to point I. Remember what educational institutions appeared in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. What new types of educational institutions appeared in the second half of the 18th century? To educate which classes were they organized?

In the first half of the century, there were secondary specialized educational institutions in Russia (Artillery and Engineering schools, Medical School, Naval Academy, etc.), as well as gymnasiums and universities (for most of the century there was only one university).

Under Catherine II, public schools, educational homes, soldiers', mining and sailing schools appeared. That is, the state began to care about the education of the common people, and not just the upper strata of society. Women's education also advanced - in 1764 the Smolny Institute was created. Vocational education also developed. For example, medical-surgical schools appeared, which already under Paul I in 1798 were transformed into Medical-Surgical Academies.

Question for point II. What is the connection between the development of education and science? What new can be noted in the scientific life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century?

With the development of enlightenment, science also developed, although the connection is not direct - many scientists, like other nobles, went to Europe to complete their education, therefore the level of education in their homeland did not directly influence them. But these processes developed in parallel, and therefore had common trends. The number of scientists expanded, as did the number of educational institutions. In the middle of the century, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov became a leading specialist in many fields of science because there were few other specialists. During the reign of Catherine II, we already see a whole galaxy of Russian scientists, each of whom worked in his own field of science.

Question to point III No. 1. What, in your opinion, is the connection between the development of the educational system and technical thought in the second half of the 18th century?

Not only nobles, but also people from the people played a big role in the development of technical thought. Therefore, education for the lower strata of society played a big role, for example, public schools, which appeared precisely in Catherine’s era.

Question to point III No. 2. Why have not all the technical innovations of Russian inventors been brought to life?

In Europe, many technical innovations were used by entrepreneurs. They wanted to reduce production costs so that in times of crisis they would not be left without profit. In Russia there was no layer of free entrepreneurs, and the nobles who owned factories during the years of crisis simply transferred the peasants back to cultivating the land. Therefore, technical innovations sometimes aroused interest, but there was no need for new inventions.

Question to paragraph No. 1. What trends in the development of education and science were common for Russia and European countries during the Enlightenment? What made them different?

Both in Russia and in Europe, education was dominated by the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was believed that a person is born like a blank slate, his beliefs are laid down by his upbringing. Therefore, anyone can be raised into a hardworking and decent person, as well as a free citizen, you just need to properly organize the education system. Moreover, in Russia these ideas reigned supreme. In Europe there was a struggle against the systematization of the formation of monastic orders, primarily the Jesuits. In Russia there was no such heritage of previous centuries.

Question for paragraph No. 2. Prepare a report about one of the Russian scientists of the second half of the 18th century. Describe his contribution to the development of scientific knowledge and education of Russian society.

Apollos Apollosovich Musin-Pushkin was born in 1760 in the family of a prominent official Apollos Epaphroditovich Musin-Pushkin, who rose to the position of president of the Berg College (he was from 1767 until his death in 1771). Therefore, Apollos received the best education for his time.

The future scientist lost his father at the age of 11, but his father’s connections remained, so the young man had no problems with patronage. His father-in-law's connections also helped - Apollos Apollosovich married a representative of the influential Golitsyn family, the granddaughter of Field Marshal Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn. During his relatively short life, he became a captain of the horse guards, an actual chamberlain and a privy councilor (that is, he rose to the very high rank IV). Was awarded the Order of St. Anna I degree. But, as befits a high-ranking official of that time, he did not perform any duties in connection with most of the positions he held; he really only worked in the Mining Collegium.

Apollos Apollosovich conducted extensive scientific research in chemistry, mineralogy and a little botany. He was especially interested in platinum. In particular, he found a way to apply platinum amalgam. He was elected a member of the academies of sciences in St. Petersburg, Berlin, Stockholm and Turin, as well as the Royal Society of London.

In the first years of the 19th century, the scientist went on a mineralogical expedition to Georgia, which had recently been annexed to Russia. On the affairs of the Mining Collegium, he was looking for new deposits of ores of various metals, but the scientific program of the expedition was much broader, even including botany. Musin-Pushkin sent a large collection of minerals with scientific explanations to the Academy of Sciences.

During this expedition, the scientist fell ill and died in Tiflis in 1805 at the age of 45.

Upbringing and education in the second half of the 18th century.

In the age of Catherine, secular upbringing and education continued to develop. The state, as before, is in great need of literate people for its bureaucratic apparatus. The Church, alarmed by the decline in the authority of the clergy, is seeking literacy and education for the clergy.

According to 1797 data, the percentage of the literate rural population was 2.7%; urban - 9.2%, it is worth considering that the bulk of the Russian population were peasants, and only 4% were city dwellers. The literacy standard was extremely low. A person who could sign instead of a cross was considered literate.

The need for knowledge was recognized by many, but it was not easy to satisfy. The contradictions of Russian life affected the field of public education almost to a greater extent than in other areas of culture.

There were different, often opposing views on the education of the people in the 18th century, which were determined by the social status, degree of education and level of understanding of the state tasks of the specific bearer of these views.

The idea of ​​educating the people was not alien to many leaders of this time. Thus, Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, quite in the spirit of the “age of Enlightenment,” admitted that many Alexanders and Caesars could be found “among the ploughmen.” However, since they are “born with a plow, they die with a plow, never suspecting that they have such talents,” then the Alexanders, Caesars and Scipios should be sought not from the plow, but among the “nobles” /11/.

The state of Catherine's era established schools, but excluded the bulk of the people from education. As usual, there was not enough money for schools. In addition, education was simply not provided for serfs.

To all this it is worth adding that there was neither experience in organizing public education nor a developed pedagogical theory. Moreover, in such a huge, multinational and unevenly developed country as Russia, many difficulties naturally arose.

The development of education during the reign of Catherine the Great can be divided into two periods:

First, 1755-1782 characterized by the development of educational pedagogical ideas, the growing role of Moscow University, awareness of the need for a state system of public education, and reforms of educational institutions.

The second begins with the school reform of 1782-1786. - the first attempt to create a state system of public education. This period ends with the school reform of 1804.

So, the first period is associated with the implementation and development in the activities of Moscow University of the main provisions of M. V. Lomonosov, which was of fundamental importance not only for Russian pedagogy, but also for Russian culture as a whole / 12/.

Moscow University arose during the period of the rise of social thought, when the Russian Enlightenment was taking shape. With full right, M.V. Lomonosov and most of his students can be called the first Russian enlighteners. New pedagogical ideas are developing under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Moreover, in the system of public views of educators, the problems of upbringing and education occupied leading positions.

In the 60-80s. Journalism is blossoming in Russia, and magazines are beginning to publish articles on problems of education and upbringing, not only in educational institutions, but also in the family. There was even an article about self-education.

At the same time, interest in Western European pedagogical thought is growing in our country. Moscow University professor N. Popovsky translates the work of the most prominent English educator and philosopher D. Locke “On the Education of Children...”. Locke's ideas, directed against medieval pedagogy, the basis of which was the principle of intimidating a child and suppressing his personality, were very close to Russian educators.

Russian pedagogical thought also developed under the influence of the ideas of J. J. Rousseau. The demand for “natural education,” which reveals and does not distort the good natural qualities of the individual, a merciless criticism of medieval morality, all of this found a response in the hearts of Russian teachers. Russian educators were also familiar with the pedagogical statements of Ya. A. Kamensky. These pedagogical reflections contributed to the fact that Russian humanist educators began to advocate the harmonious development of the human personality through education based not on suppressing the child’s personality, but on respect for it.

The ideas of enlightenment became the most attractive to the progressive people of that time. I. I. Betsky, N. I. Novikov express thoughts about the upbringing and education of “new people” and “useful citizens.” Catherine herself shares these views.

Catherine II and those who, on her instructions, dealt with the problems of education were “children of the Age of Enlightenment.” It seemed to them that if you educate a person correctly from a young age, you can create a “new breed of people.” These will be enlightened, humane nobles, merchants, industrialists and artisans. Enlightened nobles would

take care of his serfs in a fatherly way, without embittering them with excessive cruelty, and merchants, industrialists and artisans would work diligently. Of course, they must be completely devoted to the throne and not prone to “harmful speculation.” It would be calm and pleasant for an enlightened monarch to govern such subjects. The monarch must rule not only over the bodies, but also over the souls and minds of his subjects.

Therefore, in the 60-70s, an attempt was made to create a system of educational institutions in which these dreams could be realized. Catherine entrusted the implementation of the plan Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795). Betskoy was a famous teacher and public figure of the era. The son of Field Marshal, Prince I. Yu. Trubetskoy, I. I. Betskoy was born in Stockholm, where his father was in captivity. Being an illegitimate child, he inherited his father's shortened surname, without the first syllable. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna he served in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. Having received his resignation, he spent fifteen years abroad, where he met French educators - Diderot, Rousseau, Grim. Returning to Russia, in 1761 he presented a project for the reform of public education, which in 1764 was approved by Catherine. I. I. Betskoy presented the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth,” in which he set a grandiose task: “to overcome the superstition of centuries, to give our people a new education and, so to speak, a new generation...”. He believed that "the wisest laws without good morals will not make the state happy, and that morals should be impressed at the dawn of life." In his program, he listed the virtues that should be cultivated in children: faith in God, good behavior, friendliness, thrift, neatness, patience, etc. The reformer encourages children's playfulness, liveliness, desire for fun and games, believing that this “is the main means to increase health and strengthen physique.”

According to Betsky, proper education can be given by isolating children from the harmful influence of society. The creation of closed “educational schools” was envisaged, where children no older than 5-6 years old would enter, while they were not yet spoiled by bad influence and improper upbringing. While in school until they are 18-20 years old, they must meet even their closest relatives only on certain days and in the presence of teachers. Betskoy developed a whole system of games and activities to “exercise children in various skills and handicrafts.”

His project strictly adhered to the class principle. Noble children should study in cadet corps and “schools for noble maidens,” and commoners should study in schools at the Academy of Arts and educational homes in all provinces.

Having left the school, the commoners were supposed to form a new class - “the third degree of people” - scientists, artists, artisans, teachers, doctors. The first two “degrees” are nobles and peasants. There was no talk at all about the education of peasant children; serfs were not accepted into any school.

According to the project, on the initiative of I. I. Betsky, the following were opened: a school at the Academy of Arts; educational homes for orphans and “rootless” babies in St. Petersburg and Moscow; Society of two hundred noble maidens with a department for bourgeois maidens - in St. Petersburg; commercial school and cadet corps, reorganized the Land Noble Corps /13 A/.

For all schools, Betskoy developed statutes that expressed many humane and new pedagogical ideas for their time. The charters of the schools were approved by the empress and published several times, which contributed to the spread of new views on upbringing and education. Unfortunately, reality has shown that writing charters and projects is much easier than creating educational institutions in practice. Betsky's good intentions were dashed by the inability, ignorance, and dishonesty of many educators.

Smolny Institute

However, among the educational institutions created by Betsky, one is of particular importance in the history of Russian education. This is the Educational Society for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute), which marked the beginning of female secondary education in Russia.

The idea that women also needed education very slowly penetrated the consciousness of people in the 18th century. In “high society,” as a rule, they limited themselves to basic literacy training; their daughters were taught French, dancing, and good manners. Few women of that time had a serious education. Princess E.R. Dashkova, the future president of the Russian Academy of Sciences, wrote: “I can safely say that, besides me and the Grand Duchess (the future Empress Catherine II - M. L.) at that time there were no women engaged in serious reading" /14/.

Betskoy believed that the state should take over the education of “youth of both sexes,” since properly raised mothers will raise “a new breed of people.” In addition, thanks to such educational institutions, it was possible to help poor nobles in raising their daughters, and from girls of the bourgeois class to train governesses, teachers, and needlewomen.

In 1764, the first female noble educational institution was opened in St. Petersburg - the Women's Educational Institute (it was called Smolny after the monastery next to which it was located) or the Imperial Educational Society for Noble Maidens. Girls from families of hereditary nobles were accepted into it. The course of study was designed for 12 years and began at the age of 6. The institute was a closed educational institution for 200 students.

The decree sent throughout the country said that every nobleman could “entrust his daughters in their infancy to this established education from Us,” but none of the provincial nobles responded to this invitation. The first year was recruited exclusively from girls of noble St. Petersburg families. Later, the institute began to admit mainly poor noblewomen; this was a special distinction and privilege. Sometimes girls from noble families ended up there; as a rule, they were orphans. If some honored general died on the battlefield, then the empress, out of mercy, could enroll his daughter in college.

The entire training lasted nine years. Little girls of six or seven years old were taken to the institute, and for nine years, as a rule, they did not see home. Parents living in St. Petersburg could visit their children, but these visits were strictly limited. But poor parents of girls from the provinces most often could not do this because of the high cost of traveling to St. Petersburg.

The students were divided into four age groups (later - three), 3 years in each, and in each “age” the young ladies wore dresses of a certain color. Girls 6-9 years old dressed in light gray dresses. They studied the law of God, Russian, French, German and Italian, arithmetic, drawing, dancing and handicrafts. Girls 9-12 years old wore brown dresses with white calico aprons (they were called “coffee aprons”). In addition to the listed subjects, they studied history, geography and home economics. Smolyanka girls aged 12-15 dressed in blue dresses and were nicknamed “blue” or “desperate”. Due to adolescence, they behaved mischievously, teased the younger ones, and did not do their homework. “Blues” additionally studied verbal sciences, including “poetry,” as well as physics, architecture and heraldry. Girls aged 15-18 wore green dresses to classes, but were called "white" because they had white ball gowns. These girls were allowed to organize balls at the institute, where they danced with each other (“sherochka with masherochka”), and on special occasions a limited number of court gentlemen were invited to the ball. During the lessons, the “whites” repeated what they had learned and intensively studied housekeeping, handicrafts and bookkeeping.

In the charter of the society, it was formed what “the perfect upbringing of young girls” consists of. This is Christian piety, obedience to those in authority, courtesy, meekness, a pure heart inclined to goodness, modesty and generosity befitting noble persons.

The purpose of education according to the Betsky system is to expel the germs of pride and conceit: “so that they never think that they are already perfect, they try hour by hour to be better” /15/.

Particular attention in raising girls was paid to physical development. The students spent a lot of time outdoors. The girls played outdoor games and trained themselves. According to the recollections of one of the graduates, in winter it was cold in the dormitories, and ice floated in the water for washing. The food was simple, spicy and spicy foods were excluded.

Corporal punishment was not allowed at the Smolny Institute. They were punished by deprivation of a walk with other children, standing in one place, deprivation of breakfast or lunch (deprivation of dinner was prohibited).

Much attention was paid, as we would now say, to aesthetic education. Smolyanka staged home performances, operettas, and ballets. It was believed that theater could play an important formative role in raising a society girl. Catherine II ordered the children's theater to be staged on a grand scale: the empress herself and the best writers of that time wrote for these performances, costumes for performances and concerts were sewn by court theater tailors, and court craftsmen also painted the sets. Leading choreographers and dramatic actors prepared students for performances. It’s no wonder that the girls, separated from their families, were fond of theater and played very well. The most capable girls performed at the Hermitage Theater. G. R. Derzhavin wrote about Smolyanka:

The singing delighted the soul,

And the beauty of all hearts...

Both Catherine II and Betskoy paid much more attention to the educational society for noble maidens than to other public institutions. Large funds were allocated for it. I. I. Betskoy often visited Smolny, took walks in the Summer Garden, and trips to Tsarskoe Selo. The Empress also visited Smolny.

The first release of Smolyankas took place in 1773. They were solemnly, with music, taken for a walk in the Hermitage Garden, where a select audience gathered. The best students upon graduation received a code (this is the empress’s monogram decorated with diamonds) and could become ladies-in-waiting, which was very important for the poor noblewoman.

In 1765, the year after the opening of the Smolny Institute, the “Special School at the Resurrection Novodevichy Convent for Young Girls” was founded - a closed female educational institution for girls of the bourgeois class with 240 seats. The age of the pupils ranged from 10-12 to 16-18 years. The education and training programs were the same as those of the Smolensk women, but heraldry, geography and history were excluded.

At the end of the training course, they tried to marry off the girls if there were “grooms worthy of their condition.” In 1776, Catherine II granted 100 thousand rubles from the treasury for “the maintenance and dowry of these girls who cannot have this help... from anywhere.”

Unfortunately, Betsky's pedagogical system did not justify itself. The Smolensk women did not produce a “new breed of people.” They remained people of the same “breed” as their fathers and mothers. However, being in a closed educational institution left an indelible mark on the students of Smolny. Parents sometimes felt that their children were of a completely different type than they were. Brought up in artificial greenhouse conditions, stuffed with “sublime” ideas, these girls in real life were often helpless and defenseless. However, these girls made excellent wives - knowledgeable in housekeeping and home economics, and at the same time quite educated. It is not without reason that some leading cultural figures had wives who were graduates of the Smolny Institute. Smolyanka were the wives of V.V. Kapnist, A.N. Radishchev and N.I. Novikov.

The educational institutions created according to the project of I. I. Betsky covered too few children, and the need for educated people did not cease to grow. Many nobles educated their children in private boarding schools, which were mostly owned by the French. In such boarding houses, much attention was paid to the nobility, that is, secular sciences, heraldry, dancing, fencing, and foreign languages. Studying French allowed students to keep abreast of the achievements of European culture and literature. They were taught "cultural habits", good behavior and decent social behavior. In the 1750s. Private boarding schools for girls appeared, and by the end of the century there were 28 foreign free schools, that is, private schools, in the capital.

In 1777, two public schools for children of “both sexes” were founded in St. Petersburg - Ekaterininskaya (32 students) and Alexandrovskaya (93 students). The initiator of their creation was the Russian educator N.I. Novikov. They were supported by the publication of the magazine “Morning Light”. By publishing articles about these schools in his magazine, Novikov invited society to take part in them with the help of monetary contributions of 40 rubles per year for the education of each student.

Closed schools could not solve the problems of education and upbringing; a new reform of public education was required.

In 1782, Catherine's attention was drawn to the Austrian school system. On the recommendation of the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, the famous Austrian Serbian teacher F.I. Yankovic de Mirievo came to Russia. He knew Russian well and professed Orthodoxy. To guide the reform, a Commission on the Establishment of Schools was formed. It was headed by Senator P.V. Zavadovsky. Two types of “public schools” should be created in cities: main ones in provincial cities and small ones in districts. Small schools had two classes. Their curricula coincided with the curricula of the 1st and 2nd grades of the main schools, which were four-grade.

In the first two classes they provided elementary education - reading, writing, penmanship, arithmetic, catechism. In the senior classes of the main schools they studied the law of God, the Russian language, arithmetic, geography, general and Russian history, general and Russian geography, natural history, geometry, architecture, and mechanics. The foreign language studied was “the one in the vicinity of each governorship, where the main school is located, which may be more useful for its use in the hostel.” Thus, in the southern provinces they studied Greek, and in Irkutsk - Chinese. For those who wanted to study further, Latin was additionally introduced.

Catherine continued to believe in the power of education, so education becomes the main goal of schools. True, now it is not considered as a means of creating a new “breed” of people, but is interpreted as “... a guide to the law of God, to the knowledge of one’s duties and to the observation of the laws and institutions of the state, which is called education” /16/. Therefore, his main task is to interpret the rules for students. For this purpose, the Commission is creating a special book “On the positions of a person and a citizen” /17/. It meets the challenge of guiding children’s desire to achieve “true well-being” and helping them achieve this. True well-being does not lie in wealth, but in a clear conscience, health and contentment with one’s condition. In order to achieve them, we must “feed our soul with virtue,” take care of our health, fulfill our duty and know the rules of housekeeping.

This book was first published in 1783 in two versions: for students (180 pages) and for teachers (250 pages). The book for teachers is methodological in nature. The text is the same, but it is accompanied by questions that the teacher should ask his students.

“Rules for students in public schools” were also published. The “Rules...” stated that admission to schools occurs twice a year; they were not accepted at other times. This brought uniformity to the educational process and created the opportunity to introduce a class-lesson system. Until recently, students were accepted into educational institutions at any time.

We studied in the winter from 8 to 11 o'clock and in the afternoon from 14 to 16, and in the summer from 7 to 10 and from 14 to 17. Classes began with a prayer read by the teacher or one of the students. Boys and girls sat separately in the classroom and were not allowed to leave school together. Corporal punishment was prohibited.

In 1783, a translation of the book by the famous Austrian teacher I. I. Felbiger “Manual for first and second grade teachers...” was published. The “Manual” was processed and adapted for Russian conditions by Felbiger’s student Yankovic.

For the first time, Russian teachers were offered a method of working with the class. In one of the chapters, a methodology for questioning (“questioning”) was given; in addition, the book included a methodology for teaching individual subjects. “Management” was a new word in teaching. It contained a lot of practical advice and instructions. Special textbooks were published for schools, many of them containing methodological instructions for teachers. Yankovic compiled some of the textbooks himself, and hired talented scientists to work on others. In particular, one of the most successful was the textbook “The Outline of Natural History” by Academician V. F. Zuev. Natural science became an academic subject for the first time. They studied from Zuev's textbook until 1828.

Then it became obvious that the success of education is determined primarily by teachers. Yankovic worked hard to train teachers. In 1783, the first Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg. 35 students from St. Petersburg and Moscow theological seminaries were enrolled in it. From these, Yankovic began to train future public school teachers. The course of study took 4 years. The two higher classes were taught by adjuncts and professors of the Academy of Sciences, and the two lower classes were taught by trained seminarians. The school had research rooms and a library, and subscribed to Russian and foreign journals. In 1786, the Teachers' Seminary separated from the Main School. It organized 2 faculties: mathematics and history. Students from one department were required to study an abbreviated course from another.

By 1786, basic regulations and instructions were issued, textbooks and manuals were published, and teachers were trained. In the same year, schools were opened in 25 provinces, in which about 10 thousand children studied, and by the end of the century, more than 22 thousand people were studying in 288 public schools, of which 1.5 thousand were girls. Children of all classes could enter public schools, but they opened only in big cities, so peasant children could not study there.

The organization of public schools is a big breakthrough in the field of Russian education. For the first time in Russia, a system of uniformly organized educational institutions was created, with uniform plans, class-lesson teaching, and a uniform methodology.

The secular school in Russia developed under difficult conditions. Honor and glory to those people who, in this difficult time, sowed “reasonable, good, eternal”, proved the need for teaching for the entire people, developed pedagogical theory, teaching and upbringing methods.

Education and pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Catherine II

Catherine showed special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian Empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the “University Plan for Russia.” The period of the highest development of school affairs in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796).

The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other arts. Special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps - made noticeable progress.

The Charter of 1766 divided the training program into three groups of sciences:

guiding to the knowledge of subjects necessary for the civil rank;
useful or artistic: physics, astronomy, geography, navigation, etc.;
guiding the knowledge of other arts: logic, mathematics, eloquence, Latin and French, mechanics, etc.
In the second half of the 18th century. Private educational institutions with public school programs are being developed.

In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704 - 1795) as her chief adviser on educational issues, who played a significant role in the development of education in Russia. I.I. Betskoy was born in Stockholm, where his father Ivan Yuryevich was captured by the Swedes. Born as a result of a civil marriage, I.I. Betskoy was considered in Russia the “illegitimate” son of Trubetskoy, who awarded him the truncated surname Betskoy. He spent his first years in Sweden, then was brought to Russia, where he was raised in his father’s family. In 1721 he received service in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In 1728 he received the rank of lieutenant. In 1747, with the rank of major general, he resigned and went on a trip to Europe, where he became acquainted with the ideas of Helvetius, Rousseau, and Diderot. In 1762, Betskoy was returned to Russia and appointed a confidant of Catherine II. He was entrusted with the creation of a system of educational institutions. In 1762, I.I. Betskoy headed the Academy of Arts, which already had an Educational School. Betsky's name is associated with the establishment in 1763 of the first in RussiaOrphanage.

At the House, children from the age of 14-15 were taught various crafts. Five years later, they could get married. When leaving home, the pupils received full uniforms and the rights of free people. Following the example of the Moscow Orphanage, the Orphanage was organized in St. Petersburg. It was 1772. It was proposed to organize similar houses in all major cities, which were supported by donations. I.I. Betskoy accepted the ideas of the French enlighteners and tried to implement them in Russia. His activities, first of all, were associated with the drafting of bills concerning the training and education of Russian youth. He comes to the need for closed educational institutions for children from 6 to 20 years old, to create a “special breed of people” free from the vices of modern society. True education is about instilling self-respect.. According to Betsky’s reports and charters, the following were opened:

Orphanage in Moscow (1764)
Orphanage in St. Petersburg (1772)
School at the Academy of Arts for boys (1764) and at the Academy of Sciences (1765)
Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1764)
Commercial school (1772).
All of these were strictly class closed educational institutions.

Education in them was considered from four sides:

physical (a healthy mind in a healthy body);
physical and moral (Idleness is the mother of all vices, and hard work is the father of all virtues);
moral (removing the student from anything that may have a shadow of vice);
teachings (development of mental powers as a means for getting a piece of bread).
The Orphanage in St. Petersburg accepted “motherless babies and children.” The treasury allocated an insignificant amount for the maintenance of the house, which did not cover expenses. Then the need for charity was announced, and money was collected. Initially, the Orphanage was located at the Smolny Monastery, then it was transferred to the large palace of Princess Natalia (part of house No. 35 a on Shpalernaya Street). On May 14, 1797, Emperor Paul I issued a decree giving independence to the St. Petersburg Orphanage. In the same 1797, it was located in buildings on the embankment of the Moika River, acquired from General Field Marshal Razumovsky (now 5th Corps) and Count Bobrinsky (2nd Corps).

I.I. Betskoy imagined raising children in this house like this:

up to 2 years of age, children are in the care of wet nurses and nannies,
from 3 to 7 years old, boys and girls live together and are accustomed to light work,
from 7 to 11 years old, they go to school together for one hour every day, learn to read, and comprehend the basics of faith. During these same years, boys learn to knit caps, nets, etc., and girls practice spinning, knitting, lace-making, etc.
from 11 to 14 years old, boys and girls learn writing, numbers, arithmetic, geography, drawing, and engage in household work and crafts; girls sew, cook, iron; boys get used to gardening, yard work, etc.;
at the age of 14-15, education ends, and students begin to engage in the craft that they themselves chose.

The students were divided into three groups according to their natural talents:

1. People capable of sciences and arts
2. People capable only of crafts and needlework
3. People capable of only the simplest work.
The main principle of teaching: lead children playfully and pleasantly. The leading place was given to moral education - removing the child from any vice. With good upbringing, punishments are unnecessary, since they make children feigned, vindictive, and gloomy, but if necessary, punishment can be: deprivation of a walk, standing in one place. You should never hit a child. The purpose of education: the creation of “a special breed of people free from the vices of society.”

At the Orphanage for poor mothers in labor there was a hospital with 20 beds. This hospital was served by only 6 people. Those born in this hospital were transferred to the Orphanage, later this order was canceled - only those babies were given away that were abandoned by their mothers. The child’s admission to the Orphanage was not accompanied by any paperwork. About three thousand children came here every year. The most distinguished students continued their studies in the capital's gymnasiums, but in 1837 this order was abolished.

Below is an excerpt from I.I.’s plan. Betsky: “General institution for the education of both sexes of youth” (1764).

“It is clear that the root of all evil and good is education: the latter can be successfully achieved only by choosing means that are direct and thorough. And it remains to produce a “new breed of people” through education, who would be free from the vices of modern society. This intention follows to fulfill the establishment of an educational school for both sexes of children, to accept here no older than 6 years of age and to bring education with tireless work until the age of 18-20. Although their relatives can see them on appointed days, but only in the school itself. At schools, the first thing to consider is the stimulation of hard work , and so that idleness is put to shame, teach housekeeping, deepen their inclinations towards cleanliness and neatness. But first, one should consider his inclinations and desire and leave the choice to himself. One should eradicate everything that can be called boredom, thoughtfulness, regret. But before organizing schools you should accept the rule: either do and make whole and perfect, or leave it like that and don’t start.”
Projects of 1760 on low village schools and a public education system remained unfulfilled due to lack of funds.

In 1782, Catherine appointed the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools.” In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the “Charter of Public Schools of the Russian Empire” (1786).

The Serbo-Croatian thinker and teacher, director of the public school in St. Petersburg, Fedor Ivanovich Jankovic de Marievo, took part in the development of these documents. The Charter proclaimed education as the “single means” of the public good. It was argued that education should begin from childhood. The charter decided positively on teaching in the “native” language, that is, Russian. According to the charter, the following cities opened:

small public schools
main public schools.
These were free, mixed schools for girls and boys outside the control of the church. They could be used by the middle strata of the urban population.

Small schools: they trained literate people who could read and count well, and knew the basics of spelling and rules of behavior. These schools were designed for two years of study. They taught reading, writing, numbering, penmanship, drawing, civics, etc. They were maintained at the expense of city governments.

Main schools: provided broader training on a multi-subject basis. The duration of their studies was five years. In addition to the small school program, the course of study included: history, natural science, and architecture. For those interested: Latin and living foreign languages: Tatar, Persian, Chinese. Here it was possible to obtain a pedagogical education. Representatives of the church were removed from the schools. The charter approved the class-lesson system. The teacher was required to work simultaneously with the whole class. After presenting new material, it was recommended to conduct a survey. To answer, the student had to raise his left hand. The lesson schedule and class log of student attendance appear. The start and end dates for classes are set.

A prominent figure in Russian state pedagogy was Fyodor Ivanovich Yankovic de Marievo (1741 - 1814).

Education F.I. Yankovic de Marievo received his studies at the University of Vienna, where he studied chamber sciences and jurisprudence. In 1773 he was appointed the first teacher and director of public schools. He knew Russian well. That is why he was invited by Catherine II to organize public education in Russia. He translated various statutes and instructions for teachers into Russian, revised and published textbooks: “Russian Primer”, “Guide to Arithmetic”, etc.

He worked in Russia in the field of public education for more than 20 years. The main theoretical foundations were set out in the “Guide to teachers of the first and second grades of public schools of the Russian Empire” (1783)

The manual was compiled according to the Austrian model and contained the following recommendations: it is necessary to teach everyone collectively, that is, together, everyone at once, the same thing. To do this, students need to be divided into classes and taught not each one separately, but the whole class. When a student reads or answers, the whole class follows him. Everyone should have the same books.

Combined instruction and reading reformed schooling. Previously, each student studied on his own, he was given special tasks, each had different books. Now the teacher learned the lesson with the class, read himself and the students read, wrote on the board, and the students wrote, and when answering, the class carefully followed the answer. Methods were developed for teaching arithmetic, which should be studied only after mastering reading. It was recommended that the teacher solve an example problem on the board himself, then the best student solves the problem at the board, then all the students solve the problem. A teacher must have a number of virtues: to be peace-loving, to be decent, to have constant cheerfulness of spirit and body, to be patient and attentive, to be fair. Corporal punishment is prohibited; punishment in the form of deprivation of pleasant things is allowed. But this system was used to a limited extent. Why?

there were no teaching staff - only one teachers' seminary was opened in all of Russia in St. Petersburg, and that was soon closed. The training of teaching staff was entrusted to the main schools. The teachers' seminary trained a total of 420 teachers who worked in various educational institutions. Often they were poorly prepared and, as a result, invited foreigners (the school of Pastor Ernest Gluck).
The public was not involved in the cause of education (such as N.I. Novikov were removed from the field of action). Foreigners worked as tutors and teachers. Noble people sent their sons abroad - all this increased foreign influence on the Russian education system. An example is the “Charter for teachers’ seminaries and main public schools” from Felbiger.
Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov
(1744 - 1818)
Journalist, publicist, publisher. He considered publishing to be his real business: he put the best years and strength of his mind and heart into the printing house and bookstore. It was as a book publisher that Novikov rendered great service to Russian education. The printing company he organized in 1784 published school and other educational books. Among the books published, an important role was given to pedagogical topics. These were his own works, works of foreign authors. After the release of N.I. Novikov from the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was imprisoned by Catherine II for “freethinking,” he was unable to establish publishing activities on the same scale. Novikov financed two private schools and people's trips abroad.

He outlined his pedagogical views in the treatise “On the Education and Instruction of Children” (1783). He identified the main directions in education: physical, moral, mental. Such education contributes to the formation of a person and a citizen.

“Education has three main parts: physical education, which concerns one body, moral education, which has as its subject the education of the heart, that is, the education and management of the natural feeling and will of children, and rational education for the enlightenment or education of the mind. Thus, raise your children to be happy people and useful citizens." Novikov was for public education.

It was in the 18th century that the traditions of family education were transformed, the traditions of religious education changed, etc. The reason for this was the change in society. The influence of the French experience (closed educational institutions at monasteries) is characteristic; it was used in the creation of the Smolny Institute; the influence of ideas is expressed. J-J. Rousseau ("Emile, or on Education"), J. Locke ("Thoughts on Education"), D. Diderot and others, the influence of the German experience.

It should be noted that the period 1730 - 1765. - this is the period of M.V. Lomonosov’s struggle for public education. M.V. Lomonosov’s struggle was expressed, first of all, against German dominance at Moscow University.

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(1711 - 1765)
Russian scientist, philosopher, poet. The son of a peasant in the Arkhangelsk province. He studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1731-1735). In 1736, among the 12 best students, he was sent to study in St. Petersburg, and then abroad to continue his education. Associate Professor of Physics at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Professor of Chemistry. Initiator of the creation of Moscow University.

As a scientist, Lomonosov was distinguished by his breadth of interests; he enriched physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, geology, mechanics, history, and philosophy with his discoveries, trying to use science to develop the productive forces and improve the country's well-being. Protecting the interests of the Fatherland, the struggle for the development of science and education characterize Lomonosov as an educator.

The outstanding achievement of Lomonosov, the first Russian academician, was the creation of a Russian university. During Peter's reforms in the first quarter of the 18th century. Significant steps forward were made in the development of science, and a secular school was created. The leading center of the new school and scientific knowledge was the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, opened in 1723.

To train scientists in Russia, a university and a gymnasium were established at the Academy. However, neither the gymnasium nor the academic university coped with the task. Under these conditions, M.V. Lomonosov and his like-minded people spent a lot of effort and energy to satisfactorily organize the work of educational institutions at the academy. This activity led Lomonosov to the idea of ​​the need to create a university in Moscow. And in 1755 the university was created. The decree on the founding of Moscow University was signed by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna on Tatiana's Day, January 12 (25), 1755 and published on January 24 (February 14). The grand opening ceremony took place on April 26 (May 7), 1755, at the same time the university gymnasium began operating (until 1812). The university began its work in the center of Moscow on Red Square in the building of the former Main Pharmacy, towards the end of the 18th century. The university moved to a new, specially built building across the Neglinnaya River, not far from the Kremlin. Initially, the university had three faculties: law, medicine, philosophy...

7 years before the opening of Moscow University, in St. Petersburg, M.V. Lomonosov for the first time in Russia gave a lecture to students in his native language. Since the founding of the university, lectures have been given in Russian. From the first days of its work, Moscow University was distinguished by its democratic composition of students and professors. Solving the problem of preparing students to study at the university, Lomonosov emphasized that “a university without a gymnasium is like arable land without seeds.” Moscow University played a huge role in the popularization of scientific knowledge. In April 1756, a printing house and book press opened at the university. At the same time, the non-governmental newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti (3) July 14, 1756” began to be published. But only towards the end of the 18th century. Moscow University stood firmly on its feet and was able to unite the best minds of Russia.

M.V. Lomonosov laid the democratic foundations and traditions in the development of Russian science, school and education. He waged an irreconcilable struggle against the dominance of mediocre foreigners in Russian science: “I dedicated myself to this, so that I could fight the enemies of Russian science until my grave.” Lomonosov was against the incompetent intervention of church ministers in the development of scientific knowledge. He was the initiator of the democratization of the composition of students at the gymnasium and the Academy of Sciences. The scientist introduced chemistry and astronomy among the compulsory subjects of gymnasium education. He developed “Regulations” for teachers and students of gymnasiums, which recommend conscious, consistent, systematic learning, and visual learning. Lomonosov put forward the principle of scientific character - the leading principle in teaching. M.V. Lomonosov wrote a number of works devoted to the issues of teaching language and literature, higher education, family education, and issues of organizing the educational process. He created many teaching aids and textbooks on Russian language and literature, physics, and chemistry for gymnasiums and universities. "Russian Grammar"

“The ruler of many languages, the Russian language is not only in the vastness of the places where it dominates, but in its own space and contentment it is great before everyone in Europe.” “If he were the Roman Emperor V skilled in the Russian language, then of course he would add to this that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, richness and strength in the images brevity of Greek and Latin."
From a letter to I.I. Shuvalov (1754)

"At the Faculty of Law: professor of all jurisprudence in general, professor of Russian jurisprudence, professor of politics; at the Faculty of Medicine: doctor and professor of chemistry, doctor and professor of natural history, doctor and professor of anatomy; in philosophy six: professor of philosophy, professor of physics, professor of the trading post, professor of poetry, professor of history, professor of antiquities and criticism."
Thus ended the 18th century.

This was the era of state pedagogy, the school was separated from the church. The purpose of education: to raise a secularly educated person with a broad view of the world, preserving national traditions. During this era, the state education system took shape:

parochial schools (1 year)
district schools (2 years)
gymnasium (4 years)
Universities.
In general, in the 18th century, 4 stages in the development of education in Russia can be distinguished:

the first quarter of the 18th century - the creation of secular educational institutions, practice-oriented in the conditions of reform.
1730-1765 - the emergence of closed class educational institutions, the formation of a system of education for the nobility, M.V. Lomonosov’s struggle for public education, the creation of Moscow University.
1766 - 1782 - development of educational pedagogical ideas, increasing the role of Moscow University, awareness of the need for a state system of public education.
1782 - 1796 - an attempt to create a public education system.
Literature:

Dzhurinsky A.N. History of pedagogy: Textbook for teacher training universities. - M.: State Research Center "Vlados". 1999.
History of pedagogy in Russia: Reader / Comp. Egorov E.F. - M.: IC "Academy". 1999.
History of pedagogy: Textbook for teaching institutes / Ed. Shabaeva M.F. - M.: Education. 1981.
Latynina D.N. History of pedagogy. Upbringing and education in Russia (X-early XX century): Textbook - M.: Publishing House "Forum". 1998.
Pedagogical encyclopedia /Chief editor Kairov A.I.. T2. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1965.
Terentyeva A.V. History of domestic education. State policy in the field of education in Russia in the 10th-18th centuries: Textbook. -