Signs indicating movement of a corpse. Forensic medical characteristics and assessment of post-mortem changes. Chapter IV. Rotting corpse. Traces supposedly left by criminals

When examining a corpse at the place of its discovery, cadaveric changes and injuries present on the corpse must be identified and recorded in detail by photographing (video recording), and describing in the protocol.

Cadaveric changes are irreversible processes that develop in a corpse after death as a result of the cessation of the vital functions of the organism itself; they appear immediately after the onset of biological death. The rate of their occurrence, development and severity depend on the weight and sex of the corpse, the cause and rate of death, the environmental conditions of the corpse, etc.

Cadaveric changes, depending on the manifestation and timing of development, are divided into:

■ early (manifested during the first day after death) and

■ late (from the second day or more) (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4 - Cadaveric changes

EARLY CORDEAL CHANGES (cooling of the body, partial drying of the corpse, cadaveric spots, rigor mortis and autolysis) make it possible to resolve the issue of the fact of death, establish the age of death, the position of the corpse and its movement, and guide the expert in establishing the cause of death.

Corpse cooling is the postmortem drop in body temperature of the corpse to ambient temperature. Due to the cessation of metabolic processes after death, the body gives off heat until its temperature is equal to the ambient temperature. First, exposed parts of the body (face, hands) are cooled, then those covered with clothing and more massive ones (back, stomach, chest). The cooling rate is influenced by external factors (temperature, humidity, air movement) and internal factors (fatness, individual characteristics, the presence and nature of clothing, etc.). It can be difficult to take into account the influence of all these factors on the cooling rate of a corpse in each specific case, since variations in body temperature in different corpses depend on a number of conditions and the state of the body.

1. The corpses of persons whose body temperature at the time of death was 1-3°C higher than normal (from 36 to 37°C) due to overheating of the body, poisoning and other processes cool more slowly than the corpses of other persons.

2. The greater the body weight, the longer the corpse takes to cool. The corpses of children, thin and emaciated people cool faster than the corpses of overweight adults. Practice shows that on average the body temperature of a corpse decreases at room temperature (from 16 to 18°C) by about 1°C per hour and by the end of the day it is compared with the ambient temperature.

3. Corpses in clothes take longer to cool when undressed; the warmer the clothes, the slower the corpse cools.

4. Wind and atmospheric humidity accelerate the cooling of the corpse. Cooling occurs much faster in water than in air at the same temperature.

5. The colder the environment, the faster the corpse cools down. At low temperatures (below -4°C), cooling turns into freezing.

The body temperature of the corpse is measured after studying other cadaveric phenomena with a laboratory mercury thermometer, most often in the rectum after a strictly defined time (preferably every hour) - at the beginning and at the end of the inspection of the scene, and then upon admission to the morgue.

Cooling the corpse is important for establishing the fact of death and its duration. Calculation of the duration of death of adults and children in the medical literature is recommended to be carried out according to table 1.5, compiled according to G.A. Botezatu et al (1987) 9 .

Table 1.5 - Calculation of the duration of death in hours based on the rectal temperature of the corpse, depending on the air temperature

When examining a corpse at the scene of its discovery, the report of the inspection of the scene must include the following information about cadaveric cooling:

■ start time of examination of the corpse;

■ ambient temperature at the level of the corpse;

■ body temperature of the corpse and time of measurements; if cooling has occurred over the entire surface of the body, then it is indicated that “the body is cold to the touch”; if cooling has occurred in individual parts, then it is indicated where the skin is warmer and where it is colder.

An approximate description of cadaveric cooling in the protocol:

“...The ambient temperature at the level of the corpse is 20°C. The face and hands feel cold to the touch, and warmth is felt in the armpits. The temperature of the corpse in the rectum at the start of the examination (6 hours 30 minutes) is 30°C...”

Cadaveric spots are cyanotic (bluish-purple) areas of translucent blood through the skin of a corpse that has accumulated in the skin tissues and subcutaneous fat as a result of flowing into the underlying areas of the body under the influence of gravity after the cessation of blood circulation, or against the force of gravity when moving blood in capillaries as a result of contraction of the vascular wall. The color of cadaveric spots depends on the rate of death and the cause of death. For example, with a rapid death from asphyxia, the cadaveric spots are abundant and dark purple in color. During prolonged dying, the cadaveric spots are sparse and light bluish in color as a result of the fact that most of the blood in the vessels coagulates.

Cadaveric spots are a mandatory sign of death (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 - Cadaveric spots.

Their presence indicates the position of the corpse after its death and its changes. The dynamics of the development of cadaveric spots is one of the post-mortem processes that makes it possible to judge the time of death. In the development of cadaveric spots, most medical authors distinguish three stages: hypostasis, stasis, imbibition.

1. Cadaveric hypostasis (leakage, seepage) - characterized by stagnation of blood in the veins of the underlying parts of the body, ending 8-15 hours after death. The external manifestation of the process is that when pressure is applied to the cadaveric spot, it disappears, and when the load is removed, it is restored; When the position of the corpse changes, the cadaveric spots move completely and form in new areas. For example, when the corpse was positioned on the stomach, cadaveric spots were on the front surface of the body; after turning the corpse onto its back, they go to the back surface of the body.

Depending on the stage of development of the spot, the reaction to pressure and recovery time will be different, which can be used to determine the duration of death, for which there are special tables in the medical literature (Table 1.6) 10.

Table 1.6 - Time for restoration of color of cadaveric spots depending on their stage and duration of death

2. Cadaveric stasis (cadaveric edema, diffusion) is characterized by increasing thickening of blood in the vessels, which, due to its viscosity, can no longer move, reaching a maximum 24-28 hours after death. The external manifestation of the process is that cadaveric spots only turn pale when pressed, but do not disappear, but only slowly restore their color. If the corpse is moved or turned over at this stage, the cadaveric spots partially remain where they were and partially move to the underlying part of the body.

3. Corpse imbibition (impregnation, false cadaveric bruising) depends on the ambient temperature and occurs at different times, usually after 2-3 days, is characterized by the beginning of putrefactive decay of red blood cells and associated hemolysis (staining of the blood serum with blood pigment - hemoglobin). External manifestation - when you press on the cadaveric spot, it does not change and does not even turn pale.

When examining a corpse at the scene of an incident, attention should be paid to the position of the corpse, which determines the location of the cadaveric spots, which allows the investigator and expert to determine whether the corpse has been moved. So, if the corpse lies on its back, and cadaveric spots are located both on the posterolateral surfaces of the body and on the front (pale), then this indicates a change in the position of the corpse in the early stages after death (14-25 hours later). If the corpse lies on its back, and cadaveric spots are located on the front surface of the body, then this indicates a change in the position of the corpse one day after death. If the corpse lies on its stomach, then cadaveric spots are located on the face, the front surface of the neck, chest, abdomen, and lower extremities. In case of complete hanging, when the corpse is in an upright position, cadaveric spots are located on the lower extremities, forearms and hands. When examining a corpse at the place of its discovery, it is always necessary to compare the location of cadaveric spots with the position of the body, since against the background of cadaveric spots, sometimes in the form of lighter areas of skin you can see prints of clothing and objects found under the corpse.

When examining cadaveric spots, you should pay attention to the severity of the cadaveric spots, their color and occupied area, which is described in detail in the crime scene inspection report.

The severity of cadaveric spots in the corpses of young healthy people is good; these spots have a blue-purple color and are located almost along the entire back and partially on the lateral surfaces of the body if the corpse is lying on its back. If their cadaveric spots are not clearly expressed and occupy a small area, then we can assume that there has been bleeding. Then, when examining the scene of the incident, it is necessary to record the presence (or absence) and amount of blood shed. If a discrepancy is detected between the amount of blood shed and its presence in the surrounding environment, it can be assumed that the place where the corpse was found is not a crime scene (the place where the damage was caused). In various types of rapid death, in the case of mechanical asphyxia, when the blood remains liquid, the cadaveric spots are abundant, diffuse, and blue-purple in color. With large blood loss, as well as in the corpses of elderly, sick, emaciated people, cadaveric spots develop slowly and are weakly expressed, limited in area and have a bluish-bluish color. In cases of death from carbon monoxide poisoning, the cadaveric spots are bright, pinkish-red.

The color of cadaveric spots depends on changes in blood hemoglobin, and sometimes on changes in the environment surrounding the corpse. Thus, when a corpse is removed from the water, the blue-purple cadaveric spots on its body may change color to pink-red due to the penetration of air oxygen through the loosened skin. In practice, areas of light stripes against the background of bluish cadaveric spots can be mistakenly mistaken for a strangulation furrow, since cadaveric spots do not form in places covered with items of clothing (tight collar, scarf, etc.). These signs are used to judge the fact of post-mortem manipulation of a dead body. The corpses of young people who died from drowning in water, when hanging in a noose, are usually characterized by ecchymoses (post-mortem hemorrhages), which are rounded, slightly protruding areas of the skin measuring 5x5 mm, usually appearing 4-6 hours after death. They should not be confused with hemorrhages during asphyxia, as well as with intravital hemorrhages resulting from the impact of blunt objects. As a rule, bruises always protrude slightly above the surface of the skin and do not change color when pressed.

The forensic medical significance of cadaveric spots is as follows:

1) they are an undoubted and obvious sign of death;

2) by the stages and speed of restoration of spots, one can determine the duration of death;

3) by the color of the spots and their prevalence, one can determine the approximate cause of death and the speed of death;

4) by the localization of cadaveric spots and areas of pressure, one can determine the position of the corpse after death, the possibility of changing its position in the diffusion stage, the surface on which the corpse lay;

5) cadaveric spots must be distinguished from bruises.

When examining a corpse at the scene of its discovery, the following information must be reflected in the inspection report of the scene of the incident (in accordance with the standard medical scheme for examining cadaveric spots):

1) location of cadaveric spots on different surfaces of the body;

2) the shape of cadaveric spots (separate or merged);

3) the nature of the spots (weak or pronounced, diffuse, located on different parts of the body in the form of spots);

4) the color of cadaveric spots in various areas, indicating shades (pale bluish, bluish-purple, blue-purple, light red, etc.);

5) the presence of pale areas from the pressure of folds of clothing or any other objects, indicating the nature of the pattern;

6) shape and size, if the spots are scattered in areas;

7) do cadaveric spots change when pressure is applied to them.

Approximate description of cadaveric spots in the protocol:

“... Cadaveric spots of a pinkish-bluish color, rich, diffuse, are located on the posterolateral surfaces of the trunk and limbs. Absent in the area of ​​the shoulder blades and buttocks. Against the background of cadaveric spots, a pattern of folds of clothing is visible. When pressing for 3 seconds with your fingers in the center of the lumbar region, the cadaveric spots completely disappear and restore their color after 1 minute.”

Rigor mortis is a post-mortem hardening of muscles that usually appears 2-3 hours after death (Figure 1.3).

Immediately after death, muscle relaxation occurs, which leads to sagging of the jaw, limbs, mobility in the joints, and the muscles become soft to the touch. But 1.5-4 hours after death, due to physico-chemical processes occurring in the muscles, post-mortem muscle rigor develops, which ends after 18-20 hours and reaches a maximum by the end of the day.

In this case, the muscles of the body become dense to the touch, the neck is motionless, the limbs can neither be bent nor straightened without making significant efforts.

Figure 1.3 - Rigor mortis.

Rigor mortis is a dynamic process and the establishment of stages of its development can serve as an approximate indicator of the time elapsed after death. In the medical literature, there are three stages and the following average periods of their development (Table 1.7).

Table 1.7 - Stages of development of rigor mortis (according to M.I. Raisky, 1953)

Rigor mortis usually develops in a descending order: it first appears in the masticatory muscles and becomes noticeable there 1.5-2 hours after death, which is a valuable sign in establishing the fact of death at the scene. Upon arrival at the scene of discovery of a corpse, the investigator’s primary task is to determine that this is a corpse and not a living person in a comatose state. To do this, you need to try to open your mouth by pulling your chin; in the presence of rigor mortis, the mouth does not open, and an open one does not close.

Rigor mortis then spreads down to the muscles of the neck, upper limbs, chest, abdomen, and legs. By the end of the first day, rigor mortis is most pronounced in all muscle groups, and by the end of the third day it gradually begins to disappear. It is possible to forcibly break rigor (for example, during criminal movements, undressing for the purpose of stealing items of clothing), and if this is done before the development of its maximum, then it will be partially restored, if after 10-12 hours after death, then it is no longer restored . The investigator should be alerted by the discovery at the scene of the incident that there is no expression of rigor in the muscles of any limb of the corpse when it is expressed in the muscles of the remaining limbs. Therefore, when examining a corpse at the scene of an incident (detection), it is necessary not only to establish the presence of rigor mortis, but also to compare the degree of severity in different muscle groups.

The rate of onset and development of rigor mortis depends on a number of factors, most notably the ambient temperature, the cause of death and the condition of the muscles. In newborns, emaciated people, and decrepit old people, rigor mortis may be completely absent. The higher the ambient temperature, the faster rigor mortis develops and resolves. In the summer, in a warm room on a corpse in a bed, covered with a blanket, and at a high body temperature before death, rigor appears earlier and develops faster. Ambient temperatures above 50°C cause thermal rigor, manifested by the coagulation of muscle protein, fixing the corpse in the “boxer”, “warrior”, etc. pose. The lower the ambient temperature, the slower rigor mortis develops and resolves. As the temperature drops to 5°C, rigor does not occur; at temperatures below 0°C, the corpse begins to freeze. Rigor mortis in water with a temperature of 0°C to 15°C lasts 3-4 times longer than in air, due to the cooling of the corpse in cold water. Moving water takes away more heat than stationary water.

The forensic medical significance of rigor mortis for practice is as follows:

1) rigor mortis is a reliable sign of death;

2) the degree of prevalence and severity of rigor mortis makes it possible to establish the time and duration of death, and sometimes its cause;

3) muscle rigor fixes the position and posture of the corpse at the moment of death;

4) this phenomenon makes it possible to judge a possible change in the position of the corpse: its undressing, transfer, etc., since after the violation of rigor mortis it is not restored again;

5) rigor mortis allows us to judge the genesis of death, sometimes imitating intravital conditions.

1) the presence or absence of rigor mortis, which is determined by the degree of mobility of the joints: first the lower jaw, then the head, upper and lower extremities; if the muscles are soft and mobility is not impaired, then the protocol notes that “rigor mortis is absent”; if mobility impairments are identified, then it should be indicated in which joints they are present;

2) air temperature during the examination, since rigor mortis depends on it.

An approximate description of rigor mortis in the protocol:

“... Rigor mortis is well expressed in the masticatory muscles of the face, muscles of the neck, shoulder girdle, including the upper limbs. There is no rigor mortis in other muscle groups.”

Drying of a corpse is dehydration of the skin and superficial mucous membranes, caused by the evaporation of moisture from the surface of the dead body. Cadaveric desiccation begins immediately after death and becomes noticeable several hours later. Its development is facilitated by both the cessation of fluid flow to the superficial tissues of the corpse and the post-mortem outflow of blood and lymph from the higher located parts of the body of the deceased.

Parchment spots appear on the surface of the corpse - areas of drying that look like grayish, yellowish or brownish plates, sharply contrasting with the surrounding tissues. The appearance of such spots on certain parts of the body of the corpse may indicate some violent actions that could lead to death (for example, the shape of the spots that appear in the neck area indicates pressure from the fingers or nails).

Common sites for examination of cadaveric desiccation include the sclera (Larche's spots), tip of the tongue, labial border, abrasions and wound edges, strangulation groove, scrotal skin, exposed glans penis, or labia minora. Extensive parchment spots can be seen on the anterolateral surfaces of the chest, in the area of ​​the heart in the case of artificial respiration and chest compressions. In those places that are most moisturized during life (mucous membranes of the lips, conjunctiva, sclera, etc.), drying appears quite intensely and is often presented in the form of brownish-yellowish areas of parchment density.

The appearance and severity of cadaveric desiccation, in addition to external factors, is influenced by the characteristics of the corpse itself: the degree of dehydration, closing the eyes with eyelids, as well as the presence or absence of clothing that prevents the evaporation of moisture. The corneas of the eyes that are not covered by eyelids dry out especially quickly, resulting in the formation of brownish areas in the form of triangles (Larchet spots), with their apices facing the corners of the eyes (corresponding to the shape of the open palpebral fissure). After death, the cornea of ​​the eyes begins to fade, becomes cloudy and opaque, and acquires a whitish-yellowish color due to the development of cadaveric processes. If the tip of the tongue protrudes from the mouth, it also becomes dense and brown.

The skin and mucous membranes of newborns, children, and the elderly dry out much faster.

To establish the intravital or postmortem origin of parchment stains, a microscopic examination is carried out, since immediately after death, the stained areas of the skin may be invisible, and as they dry, they acquire the appearance characteristic of these stains.

The investigator needs to know that parchment stains of intravital origin may indicate:

■ the nature and location of force application in case of mechanical damage;

■ the nature of the violence: squeezing the neck with hands during strangulation, injuries to the genital area during rape, etc.

It is necessary to be able to distinguish parchment stains from a similar intravital abrasion: if you apply a cloth moistened with warm water, the drying may disappear, but the abrasion will remain.

Forensic significance of cadaveric desiccation:

■ it is always a sign of death;

■ you can clarify the position of the eyes after death (open or closed);

■ whether there was any compression of the skin and its superficial deposition by anything;

■ the approximate time of death can be determined.

Signs of cadaveric drying are used during external examination of a corpse for:

1) declaration of death;

2) resolving the issue of the time of its onset, intravital or postmortem origin of the skin.

When examining a corpse at the scene of its discovery, the report of the inspection of the scene must reflect:

1) the condition of the cornea of ​​the eyes, eyeballs (dull, wrinkled or sunken);

2) the condition of the skin in areas that were moisturized during life (scrotum, perineum, folds of skin on the neck in children),

3) the presence or absence of parchment stains;

4) on what skin the parchment spots are located, their shape, size, color, density.

An approximate description of cadaveric desiccation in the protocol:

“...The cornea of ​​the eyes is transparent, on the conjunctiva of the eyes there are yellowish-brown areas of a triangular shape, the bases facing the iris, and the apexes facing the inner and outer corners of the eyes. The red border of the lips is dry, reddish-brown in appearance, and dense to the touch. On the anterior inferior surface of the scrotum, the skin in an area measuring 4.5x6.5 cm is reddish-brown, dense to the touch.”

Autolysis is the process of self-digestion of tissues caused by the action of proteolytic enzymes, without the participation of microorganisms. This process is especially pronounced with the rapid onset of death in organs rich in enzymes: the pancreas, adrenal glands, liver, etc. Under its influence, internal organs become dull, saturated with plasma, become flabby, their characteristic structure is lost, the mucous membrane is smoothed out and their disintegration occurs. Signs of the action of enzymes are found mainly during autopsy. Based on them, as well as on other cadaveric phenomena, questions about the duration of death are resolved. The significance of the autolytic process is that the changes it produces resemble the effects of poisons or disease processes. Autolysis stops with the onset of decay.

LATE (transformative) CORPHICAL PHENOMENA usually develop from the second day and even later for a more or less long period. Late cadaveric phenomena are divided into destructive and preservative. The first includes rotting, the second includes mummification, fat wax, and peat tanning. Phenomena in a corpse that are not determined by time, but are associated with the influence of environmental factors, include freezing (the effect of low temperature) and preservation (mainly with liquids having such properties).

Corpse rotting is a complex process of decomposition of corpse tissue, caused by the vital activity of the internal microbial flora, which becomes active after death due to the complete elimination of protective immune barriers. Enzymes secreted by microorganisms decompose organic matter. Therefore, decay is mainly a biological process. Rotting products, due to the formation of hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia and other compounds, have a strong, unpleasant odor. It is impossible to accurately determine the timing of decay. Under the most favorable conditions in summer, on the surface of the earth, the soft tissues of a corpse can collapse in 1-1.5 months. The rate of development of decay of a corpse is greatly influenced by the ambient temperature. The process of decay of a corpse is accelerated by obesity and the presence of microbial lesions. In air, a corpse at the same temperature rots twice as quickly as in water, and several times faster than in the ground.

The first signs of decay - green discoloration of the skin of the abdomen in the iliac areas - appear on the 2-3rd day at room temperature. On the 3-4th day, a dirty-brown venous network begins to appear through the skin. By the end of the 1st-2nd week, the green coloration of the skin will cover the entire corpse. At an ambient temperature of 30-35°C, already on the 2-3rd day, green or green-brown with a blue-black tint can be observed on the skin of the entire corpse. By the end of the first week, the first signs of cadaveric putrefactive emphysema appear (Figure 1.4) in the area of ​​the face, lips, mammary glands, scrotum, abdomen, caused by the formation of putrefactive gases and subsequently acquiring a total character. The faces of all corpses become similar to each other, increased in volume, with thick lips, branched figures appear on the skin - blood vessels visible through the skin (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.4 - Cadaveric emphysema.

Figure 1.5 - Pronounced staining of vascular networks in a putrefactively altered corpse.

Depending on the ambient temperature, from 3 to 7 days after death, putrefactive blisters form in the flat areas of the corpse due to the seepage of liquid through the skin, followed by peeling off of the epidermis, which has lost contact with the dermis. The fluid-filled blisters burst spontaneously and are easily damaged when the corpse is moved; the corpse’s clothing in these places is soaked with a blood-like liquid of a reddish-brownish, red-brown color (Figure 1.6).

Putrid liquid can attract attention at the scene of the incident; it can leak from the mouth and nose of the corpse, flow onto surfaces near the face, and soak hygroscopic objects (for example, a pillow). When the body of the corpse is positioned vertically, putrefactive liquid can flow down the front surface of the clothing. Sometimes at the scene of an incident, putrefactive fluid similar to blood by uninformed persons can be mistaken for bleeding and a conclusion can be drawn about a criminal death where there is none.

Figure 1.6 - Putrefactive blisters on a corpse.

Putrefactive gases accumulating in the body cavities of the corpse create a pressure of 2-2.5 atmospheres, which inflates the abdominal cavity, squeezes out food masses, and allows the corpse to float in the water with an attached load of up to 30 kg. Putrefactive gases accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue and increase the volume of the corpse, clothing becomes tight and sometimes tears. 1-3 weeks after death, the epidermis of the corpse begins to easily move away from the skin itself (dermis) of a dirty brown-red color, forming areas that dry out, become brown-brown, sometimes almost black, similar to abrasions, extensive burn surfaces. Uninformed people at the scene may mistake them for burns and abrasions (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 - Putrid-altered corpse.

The putrefactive process primarily affects the brain, turning it into a dirty greenish, structureless pulp, which makes it difficult to study in cases of traumatic brain injury. Later, others affect the prostate gland, uterus, ligaments and cartilage. After about 1-1.5 years, the soft tissues disintegrate, and after 2-3 years the bone ligaments completely disappear. Rotting occurs most quickly at average temperatures (30-40°C) and high environmental humidity. In soil and water, corpses buried in winter rot more slowly. In coarsely porous soil with good ventilation, a corpse can be preserved for a long time. The skin of putrefactively altered corpses lying in a room of limited volume in the air can become covered with mold, which prefers to grow in areas lacking epidermis. In the warm season, mold forms on the corpse by the end of the first week after death.

Assessing the condition of the corpse and the time of death based on the severity of decay should be carried out with great caution, taking into account all this information and specific conditions and situations. The investigator needs to know that sudden putrefactive changes in the corpse are not an obstacle to conducting a forensic medical examination.

When examining a corpse at the place of its discovery, the report of the inspection of the scene must necessarily reflect the signs of rotting of the corpse:

1) putrid smell;

2) putrefactive blisters, their type, shape and location;

3) corpse green on the skin, its location (on which parts), the color of the skin in these places, whether there is a crunch in the tissues when palpated (putrefactive gases) and blisters on the skin;

4) bloating of the corpse.

Destruction of a corpse can occur not only due to rotting processes, but also due to damage by the larvae of flies, ants, various insects, animals, fish, crayfish, crabs, etc. Flies (house flies, meat flies, corpse flies, blue flies, etc.) are especially destructive to the corpse. Soon after death, they begin to lay eggs in the form of whitish grains in the eye area, around wounds, openings of the nose and mouth (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 - Putrefactive changes in a corpse, fly larvae.

After 1-3 days in warm weather, larvae appear from the testicles, penetrate into the body and continue to develop there for 1.5-2 weeks, turning into pupae, from which flies emerge after 2 weeks. Then a new fly breeding cycle begins. Under favorable conditions, flies completely destroy (skeletonize) the corpse of an adult in 2-4 months, and a newborn in 2-3 weeks. When examining a corpse, damage to the corpses by beetles, cockroaches, ticks, dogs, wolves, etc. is sometimes revealed.

Features of insect biology serve as a scientific prerequisite for using these data in investigative practice:

■ the presence in nature of non-insect necrobionts that utilize the tissues of corpses and spend most of the development cycle in them;

■ the relative specificity and constancy of the entofauna of a corpse in a particular geographical area;

■ correspondence of the species composition of the fauna of the corpse to the degree of decomposition of its tissues and location;

■ seasonal change of dominant species of necrobiont insects, etc.

Entomological research allows us to solve the following problems:

1) determination of how long ago the death occurred or the time the corpse was found at the place of its discovery;

2) clarification of the season when the corpse arrived at the place of its discovery;

3) determination of the fact of movement of the corpse;

4) establishing the place of initial location of the corpse or the place where the corpse was hidden;

5) determining the degree of decomposition of the corpse, etc.

Fat wax (saponification, saponification) is a late cadaveric change of the preservative type. Fat wax is a granular mass of grayish-white color with a greasy sheen and a characteristic odor of rancid cheese. The formation of adipose wax is based on the decomposition of fatty tissue into glycerol and fatty acids, followed by saponification of these acids. The main conditions for its formation are:

■ high humidity in the environment where the corpse is located;

■ minimal air access;

■ increased fat content in the tissues of the corpse.

The main condition for the formation of fat wax is the lack or complete absence of aeration. This leads to a slowdown or complete stop of the decomposition of the corpse. This phenomenon occurs when the corpse is in clayey, damp soil, or when the corpse remains under water for a long time. The essence of the process is the gradual decomposition of the fat of the corpse and the washing out of some of the derivatives formed. The remaining water-insoluble fatty acids combine with alkali and alkaline earth metal salts and form a substance resembling waxy fat, called fat wax. The formation of fat wax becomes noticeable after 3-5 weeks. It takes approximately 8-12 months for a complete saponification of an adult corpse, and 5-8 weeks for a newborn corpse.

Externally, with fat wax, the skin of the corpse is brownish, the soft tissues of the corpse and internal organs are preserved for a long time, turning into a soft, viscous, cheese-like substance, while the corpse itself emits a strong and persistent stench.

■ traces of damage;

■ strangulation groove;

■ other changes of great investigative and expert significance.

Mummification is the process of dehydrating the tissues and organs of a corpse and drying them out. The volume and weight of the mummified corpse decrease sharply, subcutaneous fatty tissue disappears, and internal organs and skeletal muscles decrease in volume. The skin becomes very dense, brittle, brittle, and takes on a brownish-brown color (Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9 - Mummified corpse.

Sometimes thin skin, when dried, cracks in places where there is little fat (for example, on the head), which externally can be mistaken for mechanical damage, so you should be careful in drawing conclusions at the scene.

The most optimal conditions for mummification when a corpse is in the open air are:

■ dry climate;

■ high ambient temperature;

■ good ventilation.

Main signs of mummification:

■ huge weight loss (up to 93%);

■ preservation of external forms, including preservation of the face;

■ the skin takes on the appearance of dense parchment of a brownish-brown color;

■ internal organs dry out completely, lose their appearance, sharply decrease in size and appear as dry, shapeless formations in the form of films.

The rate of development of mummification depends on:

■ body weight;

■ specific conditions for finding the corpse.

If the corpse is in the ground (dry, sandy, coarsely porous, well-ventilated soil), complete mummification of the corpse of an adult can take place in 6-12 months; under favorable conditions - in 2-3 months; the corpses of newborns, fetuses and children mummify faster. A mummified corpse is preserved for a long time.

The following are preserved on the skin of dried corpses:

1) damage that occurred during life (strangulation groove, damage from sharp instruments, firearms, etc.);

2) some traces of painful changes in organs and tissues.

Mummified hands of unidentified corpses after the corresponding

preparations in laboratory conditions make it possible to fingerprint them in the event of their seizure.

The significance of mummification of a corpse for establishing the duration of death, in the opinion of most medical authors, is small, since the rate of development of these late cadaveric changes depends on many phenomena that are difficult to account for.

Forensic medical examination of a mummified corpse allows:

1) determine the nature and origin of damage;

2) establish previous diseases of the skeletal system;

3) find out the group specificity of proteins in tissues and organs, which corresponds to the blood group;

4) make a description and identification of the person from the corpses.

Peat tanning is a process of late preservation of a corpse under the influence of humic acids and other tanning substances. The essence of this phenomenon is the compaction of tissue under the influence of an acidic environment; it occurs when a corpse is left for a long time in peat bogs or in water in which a large amount of humic acids and other tanning substances contained in peat are dissolved.

The process consists of peculiar changes in the corpse:

■ corpse tissue is dehydrated and tanned;

■ the skin of the corpse thickens, becomes brittle, and acquires a dark brown color;

■ bones become soft;

■ internal organs become smaller and sometimes disappear completely.

In this state, corpses are preserved for a long time.

Peat tanning:

1) records the damage present on the corpse;

2) allows identification of the deceased.

Often, the conditions under which a corpse is located from the moment of death to the moment of its examination at the place of discovery change, and therefore a combined development of late cadaveric phenomena is observed.

For example, when a corpse is found on the soil from the ground side, it rots and is destroyed by insects, and the upward-facing parts of the body become mummified due to ventilation and drying and can be preserved for a long time.

Occasionally, other types of natural preservation of corpses occur when they fall into oil or concentrated saline solution, freeze, etc.

Location of the incident - This is a section of terrain or premises where a criminally significant event occurred that is subject to investigative inspection.

Inspection of the scene of the incident and the corpse at the place of its discovery is an urgent investigative action aimed at studying the situation of the incident, detecting, recording and seizing various traces and other material evidence in order to clarify the nature of the event, the identity of the criminal, the motives for the crime committed, as well as other circumstances, relevant to the case. The examination is organized and conducted by the investigator. Therefore, all participants in the inspection, including at least two witnesses, act on his instructions and permission. In accordance with the law, a doctor - a specialist in the field of forensic medicine, whose duties can be performed by doctors of other specialties, can be called to participate in the inspection of the crime scene. All participants in the inspection take measures to preserve the situation at the scene of the incident in its original form until a detailed description of traces and objects is subsequently recorded in the protocol.

The inspection includes 2 stages: static and dynamic. Static means the study and description of the situation at the scene of an incident without disturbing its original state. In this case, the exact location of the corpse, all discovered items and objects, as well as their relative positions are noted. The dynamic stage consists of such a study of objects and objects in which their original location and condition change (the posture of the corpse, the location of objects, physical evidence, etc.). At the same time, a description, detailed photography and video recording and drawing up schematic drawings of the discovered objects are carried out.

The following types of inspection are distinguished:

Concentric- carried out from the periphery to the conditional center. In relation to crimes, the center is understood as the focal point of the crime, i.e. objects at which the criminal’s actions were directed (a corpse, a broken apartment door in cases of theft, a fire scene, etc.).

Eccentric- from the conditional center to the periphery.

By squares- if the territory is large, then for a consistent inspection of it
divided into sections along natural boundaries (ravines, roads, etc.), or, if there are none, conditionally divided into separate rectangles, squares, etc.

The decision to choose the type of inspection of the scene of the incident is made by the investigator, based on the specific circumstances of the event. The responsibilities of a doctor when working at the scene of a corpse include:

Identification of signs that allow us to judge the fact and time of occurrence
death, the nature and mechanism of injury, the alleged instrument of injury.

Consultation with an investigator on issues related to external inspection of labor
pas and subsequent carrying out SME.

Assisting the investigator in detecting and seizing traces similar to
blood, sperm and other human secretions, hair, various substances, objects, tools and other objects.

Assistance in describing the results of the examination of the corpse and other biological objects, in drawing up a protocol for examining the scene of the incident.

Assisting the investigator in formulating questions to be resolved
forensic medical experts.

Location and pose of the corpse.

Objects on the corpse and in its immediate vicinity.

Clothes and shoes of a corpse.

General information about the corpse.

Presence and severity of cadaveric changes.

Signs of tissue distress (supravital reactions).

Features of the body parts of a corpse and their damage.

Corpse bed.

The main procedural document reflecting all investigative actions is the protocol for examining the scene of the incident, consisting of introductory and descriptive parts, which are drawn up by the investigator in accordance with the requirements of Articles 141 and 182 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. Since this document, according to Art. 69 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, evidence matters; it must meet the requirements of objectivity and sufficient completeness of the description of the discovered material evidence, and accurately reflect the sequence of actions performed.

Studies of cadaveric changes, the indicators of which are used to determine the duration of death, should be carried out in the following order:

Determine the ambient air temperature at the level of the corpse.

The condition of the eyes is examined: the position of the eyelids (eyes closed or open), the density of the eyeball and its mobility, the presence of Larchet spots, clouding and drying of the cornea, Beloglazov’s sign, the degree of desquamation of surface epithelial cells, using the corneal imprint method.

Body temperature is determined by touch (face, chest, abdomen, armpits). Measure the temperature in the rectum using a laboratory mercury thermometer or an ITS-4A analog-digital computer at least 2 times with an interval of 1 hour.

Establish the presence or absence of rigor mortis by palpation and
through passive movements in the joints of the face, neck, arms (shoulder, forearm, hands), chest, abdomen, legs (thigh, lower leg, foot) and the degree of its severity (weak, moderate, sharp) separately by area. It is necessary to compare the severity of rigor mortis in both arms and legs to exclude, possibly, its artificial resolution when the position of the corpse or its parts changes.

Examine cadaveric spots, noting their location, type (island, confluent), prevalence, clarity of boundaries, intensity, presence of intradermal
hemorrhages on them, coloring, areas of absence of stains in the area of ​​​​pressure (bed of a corpse, folds of clothing), the presence of prints of objects, movement of stains, stage (disappear, turn pale, but do not disappear, do not change color), recovery time of a corpse stain (in minutes and seconds) after a dosed load, indicating the method of pressure (finger, dynamometer - spring, hydraulic, single- or dual-zone) and dynamometry conditions (force, time and pressure area).

Note the presence or absence of signs of drying of the skin and
external mucous membranes, indicating the shape, size, color, density, degree of expression of the contours, as well as whether they protrude above the skin level.

The phenomena of tissue experience are determined by taking into account the reaction:

skeletal muscles to mechanical (Chaco sign, causing idiomuscular tumor) or electrical stimulation; facial muscles to electric current; pupil to an electric current or to the introduction of 0.1 ml of a 1% solution of pilocarpine or atropine into the anterior chamber of the eye, recording the time of onset and maximum constriction of the pupil, the time of maximum deformation and the degree of this deformation in relation to the width of the pupil to its height.

The presence of signs of decay and entomofauna is detected.

The results of the study of cadaveric changes are entered into a special unified and formalized “Card of registration of cadaveric changes”, which is drawn up directly at the site of the external examination of the corpse and is attached to the protocol of the inspection of the scene of the incident. A copy of the “Registration Card” is sent along with the corpse to the morgue for use of its data in the process of examination or examination of the corpse.

After recording the cadaveric changes, they begin to describe the condition of the clothing. It should be classified by gender (men's, women's, children's), season (summer, winter, demi-season), purpose (household, uniform, sports, evening, special). Then indicate the color of the material and the size of each item of clothing, the degree of wear, the presence of damage and marks.

The next step is a description of individual parts of the body and the damage identified on them. When examining them, a certain sequence must be observed, which is used in the forensic medical examination of a corpse: parts of the body are examined in descending order, starting with the head and ending with the lower extremities. At this stage, probing and other actions that may change the original appearance or properties of the damage, washing the damage and surrounding skin or marks with water are prohibited.

on it, removing foreign bodies, objects and tools from the area of ​​damage. Only foreign bodies lying freely in the area of ​​damage can be removed and must be transferred to the investigator.

In cases where a corpse of an unknown person is discovered, a medical specialist establishes and enters into the protocol additional information about the clothing and corpse. When examining clothing, its individual characteristics and details, monograms, brand labels, stamps, numbers and sizes, tags and laundry marks, etc. are described. It is necessary to pay attention to the correspondence of clothing to the general dimensions of the corpse. A detailed description of the various decorations and inscriptions is given. When examining a corpse, a verbal portrait is drawn up that reflects the shape of the head, face, hair color, eyes, eyebrows, size and shape of the nose, the condition of the soft and hard tissues of the dental system (presence of teeth, their color, degree of wear of the chewing surface, malformations, destructive processes , mechanical damage, crowns, dentures). Characteristic signs, their location (tattoos, traces of operations, injuries, amputations, physical disabilities, developmental defects), professional characteristics are noted.

Identification of traces of biological origin (blood, semen, saliva, sweat, hair, etc.), their study in order to reconstruct the event, recording and removal for subsequent examination is one of the most important tasks when performing initial investigative actions.

Items of clothing suspected of committing a crime are subject to mandatory inspection; pay attention to seams, pockets, cuffs, loops, buttons of clothing, the surface and sole of shoes.

In cases where it is difficult to detect blood during a thorough visual examination, it is recommended to use indicative (preliminary) diagnostic methods, described in detail in practical manuals on forensic medicine.

Determining the time of death

At the scene of the incident, the time of death can only be determined approximately. To determine the time of death, cooling the corpse by measuring the temperature in the rectum can be used.

Thermometry of a corpse is carried out twice to determine the rate of decrease in its temperature under given specific conditions over a certain period of time, followed by recalculation for one hour. The temperature difference is used for special mathematical calculations using developed formulas.

When approximately determining the time of death from cadaveric spots, the first (hypostasis) and second (stasis) stages are used, when cadaveric spots change their color when pressed and restore their original color after certain intervals. There are special tables for approximate determination of the time elapsed since death. An approximate determination of the time of death based on rigor mortis is made based on the degree and sequence of its severity in individual muscle groups.

Rigor mortis first appears in the masticatory muscles 2-4 hours after death, then within 8-10 hours it sequentially spreads to the muscles of the neck, upper extremities, torso, and muscles of the lower extremities and, starting from the third day, undergoes resolution, disappearing in the above sequence.

With intense mechanical impact on the muscle (a blow from some hard, blunt object), local muscle contraction occurs, leading to the formation of a tumor that is dense to the touch at the site of impact. The swelling phenomenon can be observed within the first six hours after death and can be used at crime scenes.

Inspection and description of individual areas of the corpse

When examining the head, the integrity of the skull bones is determined by touch, the color and length of the hair, and its contamination are noted. When describing a person, it is necessary to indicate the presence or absence of puffiness, note the color of his skin (pale, bluish) and any dirt present. When examining the eyes, they note whether they are closed or open, the condition of the eyelids, the appearance of the cornea, the shape and appearance of the pupils (round, irregular, narrowed, dilated).

Examination of the nose begins with determining the integrity of its bones and cartilage by touch, the condition of the nasal openings (free, filled).

When examining the mouth, its condition (closed, open) and the condition of the visible teeth are noted. The chest and abdomen are then also described in detail.

The external examination of the corpse ends with a description of the upper and lower extremities. In this case, the integrity of the bones to the touch, skin contamination and its condition are noted.

Description of the damage found on the corpse

It is better to describe damage to the corpse as one or another part is examined, followed by large-scale photography (performed by the investigator). When inspecting damage, you should avoid actions that violate its general appearance and integrity. It is not recommended to wash injuries (especially wounds) to avoid possible loss of material evidence (pieces of wood, metal fragments, etc.).

Inspection of wounds, scratches, and abrasions is carried out using a magnifying glass. Probing of wounds should not be allowed due to the risk of the formation of false passages. When describing wounds in the protocol for examining a corpse, localization should be noted (indicate the distance from the two nearest persistent anatomical points), direction (in relation to the length of the body axis), shape (irregular, linear, fusiform), dimensions both before and after the edges are brought together wound If the edges of the wound have additional damage in the form of tears, notches, cuts, you should indicate at which edge they are located, and also indicate their number, depth of penetration (superficially, to the subcutaneous tissue, to the bone, etc.). They also describe the ends of the wounds (sharp, U-shaped, rounded, etc.), the nature of the walls of the canals within the skin (steep, flat, undermined), the bottom of the wound (covered with liquid blood or its clots, whether there is any contamination), and also features of the skin adjacent to the edges of the wound (scarred, swollen, bruised, clean, dirty).

When describing wounds, along with general data, specific features characteristic of a particular type of weapon should be noted.

When describing bruises, abrasions, scratches, their color and the presence or absence of swelling are indicated. When describing the abrasion, it is noted whether a crust has been formed, what its color is and the degree of protrusion above the level of the surrounding tissue. In the presence of closed fractures, the condition of the skin at the fracture site is described, since during the transportation of the corpse it can be damaged by the sharp ends of bone fragments. If both single and multiple injuries are detected, it is necessary to compare their locations on the corpse with damage to the clothing (if any).

In the process of inspecting the scene of an incident with the presence of a corpse, the investigator draws up a protocol and draws up a protocol for examining the scene of the incident. When transporting a corpse, accompanying documentation is attached, which is formalized as a referral from the investigative and inquiry authorities.

The direction must indicate:

Which morgue is the corpse sent to?

FULL NAME. deceased;

Date and time of discovery of the corpse;

Circumstances of death (if known)

Questions for a forensic expert.

It is necessary to indicate: whether the corpse should be released after the autopsy and to whom; If the corpse cannot be released, then for how long should it be preserved? The referral must be signed by an official.

For all types of death, the following questions must be asked at the time of examination:

1. Cause of death.

2. Prescription of death.

4. The nature of diseases present during life.

5. Damages on the corpse, their nature, duration and mechanism of occurrence.

6. Did the deceased drink alcohol before his death?

7. Other questions arising from various types of death (death from mechanical damage from poisoning, from extreme temperatures, etc.).

At the morgue, the expert gets acquainted with the resolution or attitude regarding the purpose of this study and other documents. Next, the expert outlines the plan and tactics of the forensic medical examination, which is divided into external, internal, and additional.

External: inspection of clothing, damage to it, various traces. They examine the scalp, face, eyes, eyelids, corneas, pupils, mouth, teeth.

Then the neck (furrow) is examined and described.

Abrasions and wounds are examined through a magnifying glass or operating microscope.

Internal examination: three cavities are opened sequentially: the skull, chest, abdomen and neck.

The first to open is the part of the body where the main signs that caused death are presumably localized. Additional studies: histological, chemical, physical and technical, etc.

The protocol part of the act indicates what was removed from the corpse and for what purposes. For histological examination, altered and healthy tissues of no more than one cm are taken (fixation - formalin).

For forensic chemical research (poisoning), at least 2 kg of internal organs are sent.

To determine ethyl alcohol, blood from the heart and 10 grams of urine are taken.

To study plankton, kidneys, bone marrow, lungs, and heart are taken.

Upon completion of the examination of the corpse, the expert fills out a medical death certificate, which is issued either to relatives or representatives of the organization performing the funeral. The main document is the “Conclusion of a forensic expert” or “Act of forensic medical examination of a corpse” and consists of three parts: introductory, exploratory and final.

The final part consists of a forensic diagnosis and expert conclusions.

The conclusions provide answers to the questions posed by the investigative authorities.

Photographs and drawings made during the examination of corpses are attached to the conclusion or report.

Research highlights:

1 corpse of an unknown person - special attention is paid to special signs

2 dismembered corpses - they find out the belonging of individual parts to the corpse, find out the gender, all parts must be described, photographed, packaged and handed over to the investigative authorities.

3 skeletonized corpses - the sex, age, height of the deceased is determined by the structure of the bones.

An important point is the examination of the dental apparatus. Identification of a person by the skull is of great importance; it is impossible to judge the cause of death; sometimes plankton and some poisons are found

4 exhumed corpses - carried out at the request of the justice authorities in cases where the corpse was buried without an autopsy or the initial examination was not carried out completely enough, or any new circumstances were revealed that require additional research.

According to the Code of Criminal Procedure, exhumation is an investigative action.

The description of the corpse can be carried out at the grave or in the morgue. The main moments of the exhumation are photographed.

The investigator draws up a protocol, and the expert draws up a conclusion.

Questions to be resolved by an expert during a forensic medical examination of an unidentified corpse:

1. What is the age, height and gender of the unknown person?

2. What diseases did the unknown person suffer from or what surgical operations did he undergo?

3. What are the characteristics and origin of pre-existing damage (scars)

4. Are there any signs on the corpse indicating the occupation and habits of the unknown person?

Questions to be resolved by an expert during a forensic medical examination of a dismembered corpse:

1. One or more persons own parts of the dismembered body

2. What is the gender, age and height of the victim?

3. How long ago was the dismemberment?

4. What is the cause of death

5. What instrument and method was used to dismember

6. During life or after death, dismemberment was carried out

7. What is the group and type of blood in parts of a dismembered corpse?

8. Are there any signs of pregnancy?

9. Are there any signs indicating an attempt by the criminal to remove special features?

10 Are there any signs indicating the presence of professional skills of the person who performed the dismemberment?

If the dismembered corpse is unidentified, then the expert will have to answer questions related to the examination of the corpses of unknown persons.

List of sources used

1. Popov V.L. Forensic-medical examination. Directory. / Popov V.L. - St. Petersburg: "Special Literature", 1997.

2. Forensic medical examination of the corpse. Ed. A.P. Gromova and A.V. Kapustina. - M., "M"., 1991.

3. Forensic medicine. Ed. A.. A. Matysheva. - M., "M"., 1990.

4. Ship medicine. Pad rad. V.N. Krukava. - Mn, "Universitetskaya", 1997.

5. Forensic medicine. Ed. V. N. Kryukova - M., "M"., 1985.

The description of the appearance of an unidentified corpse is carried out using the method of verbal portrait. The method of systematic description of appearance characteristics (later verbal portrait) dates back to the time of A.A. Bertillon and receives its further development in the works of the famous Swiss criminologist R.A.

Reiss (1876-1928), who proposed a simple and easy-to-memorize description of a person’s appearance in the form of a system of unified terms of a verbal portrait based on anatomical and anthropological data. Therefore, from a scientific point of view, a verbal portrait is a description of a person’s appearance using generally accepted standard verbal designations. In establishing a person’s identity through forensic science, the most acceptable are the signs of appearance, since they are visual, well recorded in displays, stable, individual and amenable to visual and mathematical methods of analysis, etc.

As you know, signs of a person’s appearance are divided into:

■ anatomical (structure, size, shape, color, gender, build, race, constitution, etc.);

■ functional (gait, gestures, posture, facial expressions, voice, speech, habits);

■ own, i.e. inherent in the person himself;

■ related (rings, glasses, prostheses, etc.);

■ general (body or organ as a whole);

■ private (details, parts of the body or organ).

It is important to indicate the location of signs. The most valuable group of anatomical and functional features are special features - these are rare signs that represent deviations from the normal anatomical structure (congenital or acquired) or functional state (for example, the manner of walking with a stoop or dancing, etc.). Special signs include conspicuous signs (for example, a large scar on the face, etc.).

Anatomical features determined by the osteochondral base (forehead, nose, auricle, etc.) are the most stable, but you should know that when a corpse rots, the cartilage of the auricles and nose soften, which leads to distortion of their shape. Signs based on soft tissue are less stable and can quickly change due to post-mortem processes (for example, eyeballs fall off, the color of the iris is distorted, lips and nose dry out, become deformed, etc.). That is why it is necessary to describe the corpse immediately at the place of its discovery and immediately photograph it. In the morgue, the description is only supplemented by some details that are impossible or difficult to identify at the scene.

When drawing up a verbal portrait, the external characteristics of a person are described in a certain sequence - from general to specific, from top to bottom. Sizes are indicated by adjectives: large, small, medium, shape - by geometric shapes: square, triangular, round, etc.

Description using the verbal portrait method (Diagram 10.1).

1. Gender and age are indicated (determined “by sight”).

2. Signs of a racial-ethnic type are noted.

The height of the deceased is carefully measured, and the measurement is made with a measuring tape (tape) twice (from the crown to the edge of the left and right heels).

4. The physique of the deceased and the degree of fat deposits are indicated. It should be borne in mind that if the corpse has undergone significant putrefactive changes, then its figure may greatly increase due to swelling with putrefactive gases. In case of multiple bone fractures, the figure may appear thin.

Scheme 10.1 - Verbal portrait.

5. The face of the corpse is described:

■ face shape, if necessary, specific features of shape and asymmetry, height and width are indicated;

■ hair (on the head, eyebrows, beard, mustache, etc.), its length, type of hairstyle, hair color, eyebrow contour (straight, arched, winding), etc. are recorded;

■ the nose is described by the shape of its back (straight, concave, convex), base (horizontal, drooping, raised) and features (length, width of the nose, etc.);

■ features of the chin are indicated in profile (straight, protruding, beveled) and full face (width, presence of a fossa, etc.);

■ fullness of the lips (thick, thin, dry), length of the mouth (small, large), contour of the border of the upper lip (straight, arched, sinuous, broken);

■ general appearance of the ears (size, position relative to the vertical, nature and degree of protrusion) and separately the characteristics of the lobe and shell.

When examining, you need to pay attention to traces of cosmetics. If there are special signs, they must be carefully described, their location, shape, size, color, etc. noted. Tattoos are of particular importance. They persist even on skin that has rotted, although they are faintly visible. Amputations, prostheses, physical disabilities, developmental defects, and painful changes are indicated.

It is necessary to carefully examine the nails, removing the contents from under them. You should carefully examine your palms and the surface of the skin of exposed areas of the body. In cases where the face of the deceased is contaminated, there are bruises, wounds, before carrying out a description using the verbal portrait method, a specialist in the field of forensic medicine must perform a toilet of the corpse. If the head has undergone severe putrefactive changes or significant damage, then before description using the verbal portrait method, its restoration is carried out.

An example of a description of the appearance of a corpse:

“The corpse of a man aged 50-60 years, height 175 cm, average build, short hair, frontal and parietal bald patches, brown eyes, small beard and mustache, black with gray color, foot length 25 cm, head circumference 57 cm. Teeth : on the upper jaw on the left - 1 of its own, the rest are absent, on the right - 1, 2 are carious, the rest are absent. Dressed: dark green fabric jacket, brown jacket with black pinstripes, black shirt, blue jeans with the “VILGOS” emblem, black socks, black shoes.”

More on the topic Features of the description of the appearance of an unidentified corpse:

1. Contents of the tactical operation “Inspection of the scene of the incident”
2. General characteristics of the conditions of an unidentified corpse and tactical features of its examination at the scene of discovery
3. Possibilities for identifying an unidentified corpse and conducting examinations
4. § 1.1. The concept of forensic identification of a person based on external appearance captured on video images, its goals and objectives.
5. 5.3. Prospects for the development of the doctrine of forensic registration and the practice of functioning of forensic records
6. § 1. Concept and scientific basis of forensic identification
7. § 1. General provisions of forensic identification of a person based on appearance

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Every living thing dies sooner or later, even your fictional hero. This may remain behind the scenes, or it may become an urgent need due to plot twists. However, any ficwriter has the chance to turn a death into a tragic farce without making the episode serious enough. So let's talk about death and ways to describe it. Strictly speaking, death is described either physiologically accurately (with open insides) or in an attempt to reveal the existential potential of the character. “Existence,” to put it very simply, is the meaning of life, why you cherished and cherished your invented hero, why the text with him exists at all. What did you actually want to say with your text? Why did you decide to kill someone in it? Death can also be necessary for the plot, but it can also be meaningless. Death is made meaningless only by the laziness of the author. The emphasized stupidity of the situation in which the character dies is a very good move to show the fragility of life and the cruelty of fate. However, if you don’t describe the scene in detail, the reader will consider you a “drain” without understanding the situation. In order to determine how you will kill your character, decide on the audience. How ready she is to read the physiological details, how ready she is to withstand the suffering of the mind and soul of the dying person. There are people who cannot stand the mention of any misfortune, and writing a death scene for them will only make enemies for themselves. Once you understand who the audience for your story will be - the hardcore thespians, the pessimistic and unprincipled... the bad people, or those who wear rose-colored glasses and go through life laughing - then and only then get down to business. Take the reader's place and look at the text through his eyes, write the kind of death that he considers acceptable or beautiful. Or, on the contrary, you can not care about the feelings of the audience and take risks with the NC-21 rating.

Important details you should know about any death.

First: it is irreversible. This seems like a cliché, but it is often forgotten by writers of fantasy texts where the character has the potential to be resurrected. Never will any creature, be it immortal and invulnerable, be able to get used to death. Perhaps each time the hero will lose a part of himself, experience death as an irreversible event and not understand how he is still trampling the earth. Death will always be unpleasant and perceived as something finite. This is how the psyche of all complex living beings works. Against the backdrop of this truth, any texts with hardcore characters who die and are resurrected, not caring about the number of deaths, are simply opuses of a schoolboy who played the counter. Only computer games without a plot and with accelerated combat dynamics neutralize death in such a way. Strictly speaking, there’s not even death there, just a poke in the back and a return to the checkpoint. Second: death is always tragic. It is impossible to describe a funny death, even if the main villain dies in your fanfic, and the main character in a white cloak takes revenge on him for all his sins. From the hero's point of view, killing a villain is never funny. And no hardened villain would want to die. In turn, the hero will have to convince the villain to die, and by force. But, having achieved his goal, the hero will not be able to laugh. The exception is madness, when one of the parties has gone crazy, and then everything seems funny. But, as they say, although I laugh, my soul cries. This point is associated with the inevitability of death. That which is extremely finite and irrevocable causes horror in a person; this is a property of the living psyche, even if external signs indicate the opposite. Third: a dying person is taciturn. If a person talks long and tediously, he does not die. Therefore, do not overdo it with the monologues of the dying. Wheezing, groaning, frozen words on the lips, as well as an empty look and an absent expression look much better and more realistic. This is due to the fact that emotions and strong reactions require strength. The body, when dying, tends to spend it on more pressing things: plugging wounds, maintaining blood pressure, forcing the lungs to expand and contract to get oxygen. In addition, the lion's share of energy goes into panic if the character experiences a violent death (for example, from strangulation). During strangulation, by the way, it is impossible to speak at all, because the larynx and vocal cords are crushed, and with a competent murder, the air stops flowing almost instantly, which is why the person’s face begins to resemble the color of a plum. Fourth: read reference books and textbooks of pathologists to clearly describe the consequences of death. Under different conditions, a corpse may look different. Even a burned person has different injuries; each person who dies in this way is unique. Some people's eyes burst from the heat, others go into shock before the body really starts to burn and die of a heart attack. Wounds from a knife also give strange deaths, people who died from cancer look ambiguous. Before getting down to work, you will have to seriously look through a medical reference book, design possible mechanisms of defense and fight of the body (for example, in case of suffocation - asphyxia - a person can tear his chest and throat to expose the larynx and give himself access to air). Do not forget that others do not like the dying states of their own kind, so they will try to help the dying person. Someone can delay the inevitable death, someone can speed up the outcome by simply killing the sufferer. Therefore, do not hesitate to call an ambulance in your texts, attract passers-by who do not know what to do, as well as tough people who are ready to shoot any unfortunate person like a dog. It all depends on the context of the fic. However, cases when a doctor flies from a crowd of onlookers to the aid of a dying person on a white horse and with the crown of a resuscitator are listed in the Red Book, so there is no point in adding them to the text. Nobody will believe you, even if you write slash. Fifth: the probability of death. Each factor of death has its own probability. For example, in the modern world it is much more likely to die under the wheels of a car than to get into a plane crash. It is even more likely to be injured by a falling brick from the roof, an electric shock, or die from alcoholic tremens. The latter is somehow forgotten, although the number of deaths from this factor is sufficient - dozens of people every day. However, in many texts, the characters drink alcohol like water, and then wake up with a slight hangover and continue to build their personal lives. The likelihood of death determines whether it is typical or exotic. A death that is too exotic frightens the reader and prevents him from empathizing with the dying character. The closer to the real situation death is, the easier it is for the reader to believe in it. The most banal and truthful, as well as the closest death is from old age. Organ failure, heart attack, stroke, coma. These things happen every day, and there are few people in the world who haven't had a relative die in some simple and logical way. This simplicity and logic captivates the reader immediately, because he relates the text to his life. However, too simple and banal death can turn away escapists - people who run away from reality and “grayness”. Research your audience to understand what tactics are needed. Feel free to kill characters through deadly diseases, epidemics and infections. Some of them allow you to build a real zombie apocalypse out of a civil society, which always looks fresh. A person easily dies from dehydration, poisoned by contaminated water, easily dies from the flu, Quincke's edema, if he is allergic to peanuts, and he eats a sandwich with peanut butter. To realize the beauty of random and absurd deaths, you can watch at your leisure all parts of “Final Destination”, where the mechanism of death becomes an end in itself of the plot. It is unnecessary to remind that too much pain, loss of a significant part of the blood, as well as damage to vital organs (brain, heart, liver, lungs, stomach, intestines, etc.) lead to death in 90% of cases. Internal bleeding, disruption of the integrity of the intestines or stomach lead to irreversible consequences and early death. If you have ever read books about war or watched documentaries, you may have noticed that some people live for several hours after half their body is torn off. However, they never survive. Strictly speaking, the ability to survive after mortal wounds is individual for each person, just as immunity and pain threshold are individual. However, you should not make a superman out of your hero: tenacious guys are more an evolutionary error than a pattern. Try not to prolong the character’s torment: neither he nor the reader will like it. If you want a vivid example of physiologically detailed deaths, read Remarque's books about war. There are arms and legs stuck in the iron mesh of the trenches, and tiny holes in the forehead, and death by starvation. After this school, you will be able to describe any terrible death, and without unnecessary pathos. The existential type of death involves the search for the meaning of life when the hero dies. Before death, everyone thinks at least for a second about how he lived. Some begin to experience uncontrollable hysterics when they realize that life has been lived, and nothing awaits the person in the future. Self-pity, animal instincts and complex psychological problems create a hell in a person’s head that is interesting to describe and interesting to read. There is a whole layer of people who are not interested in why and how the hero loses another liter of blood, they are interested in what he feels and thinks in the last minutes. In essence, what the hero thinks when dying is himself. The latest outbursts of emotions, reactions and behavior say everything about a person that the author would like to say. But any death, like any life, is meaningless. The mind of a dying person often cannot cope with this, so the writer has a huge chance for flights of fancy. The human mind is such a complex thing that before death a person can think about anything. Starting with the fact that the dying person will wonder whether he should paint the ceiling, and ending with reflections on the beauty of the sky or the face of his beloved. Sixth: at all times, humanity has sought to ignore death in all its forms. This is why all religions were invented, the lion's share of ideologies were created, and this is part of the mechanisms for the rehabilitation of the psyche after a person faces death. Often in the practice of psychiatric hospitals there are patients who flatly refuse to believe in the death of a loved one. Some forms of schizophrenia allow you to see and feel the deceased, like seeing and feeling a person who never existed. Another protective mechanism of the psyche is black humor or “gallows humor.” A person who jokes about death does not laugh. This is a bitter irony that allows him to experience some events in reality that he cannot influence. Most often, black humor is associated with professional injuries. Pathologists and police officers, for example, see corpses every day, and in a wide variety of formats. Dismemberment, burned bodies of children, people crushed into a bag of bones can cause strong reactions the first few times. Then it becomes habitual, like bad weather or traffic jams on the way home. This does not mean that a person has become easy about death, it’s just that panic, disgust, a sense of vulnerability and belonging have long been resting at the bottom of the soul. And if there is alcohol, a good hobby or congenital apathy, then natural reactions to death can be “paused” for quite a long time. This point does not refute the thesis that no death can be funny. There are many factors that influence the factors of acceptance of death, but a person by himself cannot easily accept death. He may forget about her for a while, may be distracted, may not think of what happened as death. The simpler a person’s intellect is, the less time he finds to realize death and believe in it. Some deny death until the last moment, until it comes for them. This correlation is associated with the mechanism of animal reproduction: the less an animal is afraid to take risks, the more successfully it spreads its genes throughout its range. Stupid people are more successful and fearless in love and in death; we inherited this from our ape-like ancestors. In addition, the human mind is designed in such a way that it comes up with any explanation for the inexplicable in order to preserve an individual picture of the world. The first cults were dedicated to natural phenomena, and, of course, death, as the most important stage of any life. And since people did not understand the hidden processes of the body, did not understand that the body is a machine with the possibility of many breakdowns, for many centuries death was perceived as something living, personified, a kind of deity, spirit, evil spirit. For a long time, death was not a process, but was a being, or a phenomenon of another being - a powerful, omniscient, holding in his hands the threads of fate, that is, God. This could not help but lead to the idea that if someone can give or take life, then death can be deceived, one can become immortal completely or partially. Hence the concept of Heaven and Hell, hence the belief in an afterlife, which in fact does not exist, but without knowledge of which a person will not be able to come to terms with his own death and the death of loved ones. The perception of death is greatly influenced by the ideas that dominate society. A person born around these ideas embeds them into his psyche and perceives them as the ultimate truth. This is necessary in order to organically fit into society and speak the same language with it. Socialization 100% influences the perception of death. If a society experiences wars and disasters, death becomes commonplace, but only temporarily. One day there comes a time when a man, who has been ignoring the corpses under his feet for years, begins to become hysterical over a dead puppy. Ignoring death is a time-limited mental self-defense mechanism that allows a person to hold out for some time in order to have time to leave, adapt to a hostile environment, and find a way to come to terms with the high probability of his own death. Therefore, outbreaks of epidemics, wars and other factors bringing death coincided with the wild religiosity of society. If you cannot influence the salvation of your own body, think that the body has a soul, and it certainly cannot be harmed or killed completely. That is, there is no death. In view of some comments to the article, I will expand this idea in more detail to answer key objections and questions. Why do some African tribes “calmly” eat human flesh? Perhaps they are calm about death? In general, they do not eat human flesh, but the personality of their enemy. Eating an enemy had a sacred meaning for many tribes; it was preceded by a whole ritual aimed at transferring the properties of the enemy into the essence of the winner. Some cannibals ate their enemies so that they would not appear as evil spirits, some ate to borrow luck and strength. But no one treated the eaten person as a person, as a living being in general. This is an object of cult, like prosphora - liturgical bread, which is eaten by “eating the flesh of Jesus” during the service. Therefore, it cannot be said that the ancient tribes of Africa were calm about killing and eating humans - it was a sacred sacrament that is not understandable to societies with a more complex organizational structure. A man placed in such a primitive society is not considered a murderer as long as he observes the taboos of his cult and the requirements of his tribe. These rules are designed to push the perception of death infinitely far away. Consider that the savage imagines that he eats cakes instead of people, and there is no way to explain to him that he is doing something wrong. However, the savage does not laugh at death, does not perceive it as a joke, and when death touches him, he is unlikely to experience a fit of joy and fun. Another example is murder by negligence. Very similar to the behavior of wild tribes. A person in anger wants to destroy the person who drives him to white heat, wants his enemy to shut up and stop doing something. But he doesn’t think about his death physically, only ideologically. If it is possible to kill a person through humiliation or a public resource, then the person will not commit physical murder. Therefore, such behavior is also not considered a “light attitude towards death.” “I will kill you if the report is not on my desk tomorrow!” - your boss yells, but this does not mean that he will actually smash your head. He just wants to stifle your personality, that's all. A person may be infinitely far from death and unable to comprehend it if he has social norms and circumstances that reinforce this ignorance. An example are numerous stories related to concentration camp employees. The vast majority of those who burned Jews and collected their clothes and hair did not realize that they were killing people. It's hard to understand, but it's true. Those who served in the concentration camps simply did a job, simply followed service discipline, simply served their society. They didn’t think about why they were doing this to people, because the country’s leadership told them that Jews are not people. Because the Jews went beyond the law, lost their legitimacy, and the German people value very much the concept of legitimacy and compliance with the rules. Otto von Bismarck also introduced a system in society and his own army where orders are not discussed, all life is subordinated to army discipline, and if you do not comply with it, society will quickly throw you outside its borders, where you cannot survive on your own. If you want to live happily, obey the law and follow the party. It is the lack of discussion in society, the lack of criticism of the authorities that becomes the basis for totalitarian states that do not allow any human unit to have any opinion. When some Germans tried to save the lives of Jews they knew, they were subjected to the most severe pressure: it was impossible to find work, they could not get food cards (and food was given out on coupons since 1939, just like in the USSR), their children were insulted and tortured at school . Some were placed in concentration camps as enemies of the people. Life became hell if you did not follow the path that the party had chosen. Under constant pressure, the human psyche builds endless barriers and filters, the heart hardens at the sight of any grief. The situation was aggravated by successful solutions to production issues. For example, Jews were not forced to kill with their bare hands, but were shot or gassed. This means that the person carrying out the murder was placed as far away from the victim as possible so that he could not realize that he was taking someone's life. “Press the button and you will get the result.” Of course, there were many sadists among the Nazis, and the pressure of an authoritarian society brought out monsters from the depths of human consciousness that had been dormant for a long time. But the fact remains: the attitude towards death is ambiguous, formed under the pressure of society and depends on the level of intellectual development of the individual. When describing reactions to death, it is worth taking into account psychological barriers, social pressure, religious cults, and the presence/absence of sufficient food and water. The more hostile the environment where a person is placed, the easier it becomes for him to become a savage and the easier it is for him to accept death. However, this is a temporary effect. As soon as a person reaches a state of satiety and safety, the awareness that he has caused someone's death will return. If there is no strict authority, cultural bonds and indulgences that could legitimize the murder of another person, then the killer may go crazy from his own cruelty. To summarize, we can say that death is described in two ways: dynamic - through verbs, rigid sequential events and actions of characters, and contemplative - through descriptions and reflections, when the situation and actions are not important, and the main role is given to the last feelings and thoughts of the potential dead man. Verbs make the situation simple and do not burden the event with unnecessary nuances, which many people like, because you can simply step over the hero and forget. Adjectives, participles and gerunds more accurately construct a frozen scene in which the chosen hero gives up the ghost. Some people just need to look at this picture for hours, so the longer the descriptions, the greater the reader's pleasure. Violent death is almost always action-packed, as there is a struggle between the killer and the victim. You yourself can determine how long the victim will resist, whether her efforts will be successful, and how cruel her death will be. The main thing to remember is that if you are describing a fight scene before death, it is important to maintain the logic and sequence of actions, as in a fight. Death from illness is best described in a contemplative manner. If violent death is instantaneous, time is compressed like a spring, then death from illness is extended, the process of extinction of life is important. It would be nice to describe that the patient is getting better and then worse. What kind of pain is he experiencing, what life support systems of his body are failing. The process of protracted suffering is important here, and the most chic way to describe it is to make the reader want the hero to die out of pity. True, there are diseases when a person “burns out” in a few hours. They can be described sparingly, without details, making do with the main symptoms. Your hero always has the opportunity to die quickly, so that he himself will not feel it or recognize it. In this case, it is very difficult to fill the scene with details so that the death of the character does not fit into one sentence. If you want to devote an entire paragraph to a character's quick death, then focus on the conditions under which the death occurred. Where was the hero’s body, what deformations did it undergo? For example, a blast wave covered your character, some piece of a building fell on the hero, instantly crushing his chest and internal organs. It would be nice to add the reaction of those around him: who saw his death, how they reacted (screamed, vomited, looked indifferently, stared blankly, etc.). You can describe in detail how and where your hero’s body fell, what shape it took, how the limbs lay, whether the teeth were intact, etc. You can add a small interesting detail of the kind: the body was all crushed, but the face remained intact; Only the right hand, on which the ring glittered, was preserved; the body lay surprisingly straight, the dead seemed alive, only asleep, etc. I will devote the last paragraph to suicides. I’ll say right away that in 90% of cases it is almost impossible for a person to decide to kill himself. However, the remaining 10% can make a cult out of this act, which still influences impressionable souls. Some people who are prone to escapism would rather commit suicide than solve any problems. In honor of such people, Roskomnadzor introduced strict monitoring of the media and some websites in order to stop descriptions of suicides and their cultivation. Therefore, I sincerely do not advise you to engage in a description of suicide, so that the moderators do not have to delete your text. If the plot requires suicide, then it is better to describe it in a negative way, as some kind of vile act. This will allow you not to bear the burden of responsibility, because you tried to make your death as unattractive in appearance as possible, and it is unlikely that anyone would be inflamed by the idea of ​​dying. It just seems like your clumsy (or wonderful) descriptions can't do any harm. Encouraging suicide almost always leads to suicide. You may not know the person, but be guilty. In this connection, I advise you to write about such episodes sparingly, raggedly, preferably floridly, without specifically listed medications, technology for gutting bellies and veins, and also without instructions on how to choose a high-rise building. You should not describe suicide in terms of freedom, flight, wonderful dreams and sensations. It’s better to do the opposite, especially since this is true in 90% of cases. A person who falls out of a window may not die, but will receive numerous and extremely painful fractures. From the substances taken, a person may vomit, have a stomach ache, or experience convulsions that cause real agony. If we talk about the reasons why people die voluntarily, there are three aspects. The first is weakness. The second is stupidity. The third is not to bring joy to your enemies. Kamikazes, as well as true samurai, who are ready to rip open their bellies at the first request of the daimyo, do so not because they are eager to die, but because if they do not die, their life, as well as the life of their family, their descendants, will become hell. Japanese society created such a rigid moral code that human life became nothing within its framework (today this is not the case, they extol life). The cultivation of honor and death for honor is an artificial selection within a rigid archaic and hierarchical society. This is a method of maintaining discipline so that no one would think of challenging the hierarchy or orders of superiors. When you don't fit into the hierarchy, argue with authorities and doubt their statements and orders, you must die. And they don’t fit into the hierarchy because of mistakes made, be it a loss in a war or a harsh word spoken to the emperor. Mistakes may be trivial, but those above you do not forgive, because the tougher the system, the stricter the discipline must be to keep the pressure on. If you loosen your grip, you will lose power and your head. And now the samurai has a choice: either kill himself in a good way, or wait until he is killed like a dog in the gateway, because a person outside the hierarchy is denied existence and belonging to people. At the same time, in the ritual of sippuku, for example, a sword is raised over a suicide in order to cut off the head if something happens if the suicide changes his mind. Any totalitarian society does not perceive the value of human life and believes that it can dispose of every living unit as it pleases. If a unit does not think so, it is killed with torture and shame as a warning to others. This situation gives rise to a paradoxical logic: if you still have to die, then at least with honor. True, honor is worthless if a person is dead. Weakness and stupidity are part of the same process, when a living organism stops fighting for its life. An antelope dies if and only if it gives in and allows the lion to dig its claws into its back and bite through its neck. When she runs from a lion, she experiences extreme stress, which can turn off her brain and force her to make wrong decisions that lead to the victory of the predator. Fatigue and stress make you run slower and eventually give in to death. This mechanism is also relevant for humans. And although no one is hunting us, it is very difficult to survive from day to day. Stress at work, pressure at school and university, rejection from peers, parents, loved ones - all this affects the psyche, which may decide that it is too tired of supporting the body in survival mode. Sometimes such a loss also occurs at the physiological level: the hormone of joy ceases to be released, constant weakness does not allow one to work and fight, and a person ultimately wants to free his psyche from pressure, free himself from problems, simply by avoiding them. And chooses to die. In addition, if a person does not have existence, the meaning of life, then the struggle repeated day after day seems meaningless and exhausting. The struggle will not stop, there will be no reward at the end of the road, then why? This situation is usually called a “midlife crisis.” However, nature has embedded in man a mechanism for the eternal struggle for life, and therefore refusal to fight can be regarded as weakness and stupidity. That's all I can say about suicide. And remember about Roskomnadzor. I hope the text was useful to you.