Negative and positive electrical charge. Electron and proton. Electric charge – positive and negative

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Typically, an atom has the same number of protons and electrons. When this is the case, the atom is electrically neutral because the positively charged protons are exactly balanced by the negatively charged electrons. However, in some cases, an atom loses electrical equilibrium due to the loss or capture of an electron. When an electron is lost or captured, the atom is no longer neutral. It is either positively or negatively charged - depending on the loss or capture of an electron. Thus, a charge exists in an atom when the number of its protons and electrons do not match.

Under certain conditions, some atoms can lose a small number of electrons for a short period of time. The electrons of the atoms of some substances, especially metals, can easily be knocked out of their outer orbits. Such electrons are called free electrons, and the materials containing them are called conductors. When electrons leave an atom, it acquires a positive charge because a negatively charged electron is removed, upsetting the electrical balance in the atom.

An atom can just as easily capture additional electrons. In this case, it acquires a negative charge.

A charge is thus created when there is an excess of electrons or protons in an atom. When one atom is charged and the other contains a charge of the opposite sign, electrons can flow from one atom to another. This flow of electrons is called electric current.

An atom that has lost or gained an electron is considered unstable. The excess electrons create a negative charge in it. The lack of electrons is a positive charge. Electric charges interact with each other in various ways. Two negatively charged particles repel each other, and positively charged particles also repel each other. Two charges of opposite signs attract each other. The law of electric charges states: charges with the same signs repel, and charges with opposite signs attract. 1.2 serves as an illustration of the law of electric charges.

All atoms tend to remain neutral because electrons in outer orbits repel other electrons. However, many materials can acquire a positive or negative charge due to mechanical influences, such as friction. The familiar crackling sound of an ebonite comb moving through hair on a dry winter day is an example of the generation of electrical charge through friction.

3.1. Electric charge

Even in ancient times, people noticed that a piece of amber worn with wool began to attract various small objects: specks of dust, threads, and the like. You can easily see for yourself that a plastic comb, rubbed against your hair, begins to attract small pieces of paper. This phenomenon is called electrification, and the forces acting in this case are electrical forces. Both names come from the Greek word electron, meaning amber.
When rubbing a comb on hair or an ebonite stick on wool objects charging, they form electric charges. Charged bodies interact with each other and electrical forces arise between them.
Not only solids, but also liquids and even gases can be electrified by friction.
When bodies are electrified, the substances that make up the electrified bodies do not transform into other substances. Thus, electrification is a physical phenomenon.
There are two different kinds of electrical charges. Quite arbitrarily they are named " positive" charge and " negative" charge (and one could call them “black” and “white”, or “beautiful” and “terrible”, or something else).
Positively charged call bodies that act on other charged objects in the same way as glass electrified by friction with silk.
Negatively charged call bodies that act on other charged objects in the same way as sealing wax electrified by friction on wool.
The main property of charged bodies and particles: Likely charged bodies and particles repel, and oppositely charged bodies attract. In experiments with sources of electric charges, you will become familiar with some other properties of these charges: charges can “flow” from one object to another, accumulate, an electric discharge can occur between charged bodies, and so on. You will study these properties in detail in a physics course.

Electric charge ( Q or q) is a physical quantity, it can be larger or smaller, and therefore can be measured. But physicists are not yet able to directly compare charges with each other, so they compare not the charges themselves, but the effect that charged bodies have on each other, or on other bodies, for example, the force with which one charged body acts on another.

The forces (F) acting on each of the two point charged bodies are oppositely directed along the straight line connecting these bodies. Their values ​​are equal to each other, directly proportional to the product of the charges of these bodies (q 1 ) and (q 2 ) and are inversely proportional to the square of the distance (l) between them.

This relationship is called "Coulomb's law" in honor of the French physicist Charles Coulomb (1763-1806) who discovered it in 1785. The dependence of Coulomb forces on the sign of the charge and the distance between charged bodies, which is most important for chemistry, is clearly shown in Fig. 3.1.

The unit of measurement of electric charge is the coulomb (definition in a physics course). A charge of 1 C flows through a 100-watt light bulb in about 2 seconds (at a voltage of 220 V).

Until the end of the 19th century, the nature of electricity remained unclear, but numerous experiments led scientists to the conclusion that the magnitude of the electric charge cannot change continuously. It was found that there is a smallest, further indivisible portion of electricity. The charge of this portion is called "elementary electric charge" (denoted by the letter e). It turned out to be 1.6. 10–19 Grades This is a very small value - almost 3 billion billion elementary electrical charges pass through the filament of the same light bulb in 1 second.
Any charge is a multiple of the elementary electric charge, so it is convenient to use the elementary electric charge as a unit of measurement for small charges. Thus,

1e= 1.6. 10–19 Grades

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, physicists realized that the carrier of an elementary negative electric charge is a microparticle, called electron(Joseph John Thomson, 1897). The carrier of an elementary positive charge is a microparticle called proton- was discovered a little later (Ernest Rutherford, 1919). At the same time it was proven that positive and negative elementary electric charges are equal in absolute value

Thus, the elementary electric charge is the charge of a proton.
You will learn about other characteristics of the electron and proton in the next chapter.

Despite the fact that the composition of physical bodies includes charged particles, in the normal state the bodies are uncharged, or electrically neutral. Many complex particles, such as atoms or molecules, are also electrically neutral. The total charge of such a particle or such a body turns out to be zero because the number of electrons and the number of protons included in the composition of the particle or body are equal.

Bodies or particles become charged if electric charges are separated: on one body (or particle) there is an excess of electric charges of one sign, and on the other - of another. In chemical phenomena, an electric charge of any one sign (positive or negative) can neither appear nor disappear, since carriers of elementary electric charges of only one sign cannot appear or disappear.

POSITIVE ELECTRIC CHARGE, NEGATIVE ELECTRIC CHARGE, BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGED BODIES AND PARTICLES, COULLOMB'S LAW, ELEMENTARY ELECTRIC CHARGE
1.How is silk charged when rubbed against glass? What about wool when rubbed against sealing wax?
2.What number of elementary electric charges makes up 1 coulomb?
3. Determine the force with which two bodies with charges +2 C and –3 C, located at a distance of 0.15 m from each other, are attracted to each other.
4. Two bodies with charges +0.2 C and –0.2 C are at a distance of 1 cm from each other. Determine the force with which they attract.
5. With what force do two particles carrying the same charge equal to +3 repel each other? e, and located at a distance of 2 E? The value of the constant in the equation of Coulomb's law k= 9. 10 9 N. m 2 / Cl 2.
6. With what force is an electron attracted to a proton if the distance between them is 0.53 E? What about proton to electron?
7.Two like and identically charged balls are connected by a non-conducting thread. The middle of the thread is fixedly fixed. Draw how these balls will be located in space under conditions where the force of gravity can be neglected.
8. Under the same conditions, how will three identical balls, tied by threads of equal length to one support, be located in space? How about four?
Experiments on attraction and repulsion of charged bodies.

I think I’m not the only one who wanted and still wants to combine a formula that describes the gravitational interaction of bodies (Law of Gravity) , with a formula dedicated to the interaction of electric charges (Coulomb's law ). So let's do it!

It is necessary to put an equal sign between concepts weight And positive charge , as well as between concepts antimass And negative charge .

Positive charge (or mass) characterizes Yin particles (with Attraction Fields) – i.e. absorbing ether from the surrounding etheric field.

And a negative charge (or antimass) characterizes Yang particles (with Repulsion Fields) - i.e. emitting ether into the surrounding etheric field.

Strictly speaking, mass (or positive charge), as well as antimass (or negative charge) indicates to us that a given particle absorbs (or emits) Ether.

As for the position of electrodynamics that there is a repulsion of charges of the same sign (both negative and positive) and an attraction of charges of different signs to each other, it is not entirely accurate. And the reason for this is a not entirely correct interpretation of experiments on electromagnetism.

Particles with Attractive Fields (positively charged) will never repel each other. They just attract. But particles with Repulsion Fields (negatively charged), indeed, will always repel each other (including from the negative pole of the magnet).

Particles with Attractive Fields (positively charged) attract any particles to themselves: both negatively charged (with Repulsion Fields) and positively charged (with Attractive Fields). However, if both particles have an Attractive Field, then the one whose Attractive Field is larger will displace the other particle towards itself to a greater extent than will the particle with a smaller Attractive Field.

Matter – antimatter.

In physics matter They call bodies, as well as the chemical elements from which these bodies are built, and also elementary particles. In general, it can be considered approximately correct to use the term in this way. After all Matter , from an esoteric point of view, these are power centers, spheres of elementary particles. Chemical elements are built from elementary particles, and bodies are built from chemical elements. But in the end it turns out that everything consists of elementary particles. But to be precise, around us we see not Matter, but Souls - i.e. elementary particles. An elementary particle, in contrast to a force center (i.e., the Soul, as opposed to Matter), is endowed with a quality - the Ether is created and disappears in it.

Concept substance can be considered synonymous with the concept of matter used in physics. Substance is, in the literal sense, what things around a person are made of, i.e. chemical elements and their compounds. And chemical elements, as already indicated, consist of elementary particles.

For substance and matter in science there are antonymous concepts - antimatter And antimatter , which are synonymous with each other.

Scientists recognize the existence of antimatter. However, what they think is antimatter is not actually antimatter. In fact, antimatter has always been at hand in science and has been indirectly discovered a long time ago, since experiments on electromagnetism began. And we can constantly feel the manifestations of its existence in the world around us. Antimatter arose in the Universe along with matter at the very moment when elementary particles (Souls) appeared. Substance – these are Yin particles (i.e. particles with Attraction Fields). Antimatter (antimatter) are Yang particles (particles with Repulsion Fields).

The properties of Yin and Yang particles are directly opposite, and therefore they are perfect for the role of the sought-after matter and antimatter.

The ether that fills elementary particles is their driving factor

“The force center of an elementary particle always tends to move along with the Ether, which currently fills this particle (and forms it), in the same direction and at the same speed.”

Ether is the driving factor of elementary particles. If the Ether, which fills the particle, is at rest, then the particle itself will be at rest. And if the Ether of a particle moves, the particle will also move.

Thus, due to the fact that there is no difference between the Ether of the etheric field of the Universe and the Ether of particles, all the Principles of Ether behavior are applicable to elementary particles. If the Ether, which belongs to the particle, is currently moving towards the occurrence of a lack of Ether (in accordance with the first principle of the behavior of the Ether - “There are no etheric voids in the etheric field”) or moving away from the excess (in accordance with the second principle of the behavior of the Ether - “In In the ethereal field, there are no areas with excess ether density"), the particle will move with it in the same direction and at the same speed.

What is Strength? Classification of Forces

One of the fundamental quantities in physics in general, and especially in one of its subsections - in mechanics, is Force . But what is it, how can it be characterized and supported by something that exists in reality?

First, let's open any Physical Encyclopedic Dictionary and read the definition.

« Force in mechanics - a measure of the mechanical action of other bodies on a given material body" (FES, "Force", edited by A. M. Prokhorov).

As you can see, the Force in modern physics does not carry information about something specific, material. But at the same time, the manifestations of the Force are more than specific. In order to correct the situation, we need to look at the Force from the perspective of the occult.

From an esoteric point of view Force – this is nothing more than Spirit, Ether, Energy. And the Soul, as you remember, is also a Spirit, only “wound in a ring.” Thus, both the free Spirit is Power, and the Soul (locked Spirit) is Power. This information will greatly help us in the future.

Despite some vagueness in the definition of Force, it has a completely material basis. This is not at all an abstract concept, as it appears in physics at present.

Force- this is the reason that causes Ether to approach its deficiency or move away from its excess. We are interested in the Ether contained in Elementary Particles (Souls), therefore, for us, Force is, first of all, the reason that encourages particles to move. Any elementary particle is a Force, since it directly or indirectly affects other particles.

You can measure Strength using speed, with which the Ether of the particle would move under the influence of this Force, if no other Forces acted on the particle. Those. the speed of the ethereal flow causing the particle to move is the magnitude of this Force.

Let us classify all types of Forces arising in particles depending on the cause that causes them.

Force of Attraction (Striving of Attraction).

The reason for the emergence of this Power is any lack of Ether that arises anywhere in the etheric field of the Universe.

Those. the cause of the emergence of the Attractive Force in a particle is any other particle that absorbs the Ether, i.e. forming the Field of Attraction.

Repulsion Force (Repulsion Tendency).

The reason for the emergence of this Force is any excess of Ether that arises anywhere in the etheric field of the Universe.

The fact that negative charges help and give good results in various diseases is shown not only by modern research, but also by a number of historical documents collected over the centuries.

All living organisms, including humans, are born and develop in the natural conditions of the planet Earth, which has one important feature - our planet is a constantly negatively charged field, and the atmosphere around the earth has a positive charge. This means that every organism is “programmed” to be born and develop in conditions of a constant electric field that exists between the negatively charged earth and the positively charged atmosphere, which plays a very significant role for all biochemical processes in the body.

• acute pneumonia;
• Chronical bronchitis;
• bronchial asthma (except hormone-dependent);
• tuberculosis (inactive form);

Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract:

Preoperative preparation and postoperative rehabilitation:

• adhesive disease;
• improving immune status.

Infrared radiation

The source of infrared radiation is the vibration of atoms around their equilibrium state in living and non-living elements.

Microspheres as part of the Activator “To your health!” have the unique property of accumulating infrared radiation and heat from the human body and returning it back.

All types of short spectrum waves after visible light have a severe effect on all living organisms and are therefore dangerous and harmful. The shorter the wavelength, the harder the radiation. These waves, hitting living tissue, knock out electrons in molecules at their level, and later destroy the atom itself. As a result, free radicals are formed, which lead to cancer and radiation sickness.

Waves on the other side of the visible spectrum are not harmful due to their longer wavelength. The entire infrared spectrum ranges from 0.7 – 1000 microns (micrometers). The human range is from 6 – 12 µm. For comparison, water has 3 microns and therefore a person cannot stay in hot water for a long time. Even at 55 degrees, no more than 1 hour. The cells of the body do not feel comfortable at this wavelength and cannot work well; as a result, they resist and malfunction. By exposing cells to heat with a wavelength corresponding to the cell’s heat, the cell receives native heat and works better. Infrared rays heat it up.

The normal temperature for redox reactions inside the cell is 38-39 degrees Celsius, and if the temperature drops, the metabolic process slows down or stops.

What happens when exposed to infrared heat? Overheating rescue mechanism:

• Sweating.
• Increased blood circulation.
• Sweating.
• Sweat glands on the skin secrete fluid. The liquid evaporates and cools the body from overheating.
• Increased blood circulation.

Arterial blood flows to the heated area of ​​the body. Venous - is discharged, taking away some of the heat. Thereby cooling the area from overheating. This system is similar to a radiator. Blood flows to the overheated area through capillaries. And the more capillaries, the better the outflow of blood. Let's say that we have 5 capillaries, but in order to save us from overheating we need 50. The body is faced with the task of preventing overheating. And if we warm up this area regularly, it will increase (increase) the number of capillaries in the heated area. It has been scientifically proven that the human body can increase the number of capillaries by 10 times! Scientists have proven it. That the aging process in humans depends on the reduction of capillaries. In old age, the number of capillaries decreases, especially in the legs and leg veins. Even at the age of 120, restoration of capillaries is possible.

So: if you warm up a certain area of ​​the body regularly, the body will increase the number of capillaries in the heated area. Relieving the area from constant overheating. In addition, heat will contribute to the normal functioning of cells, because by heating the cells we improve the metabolic process (metabolism). This will contribute to the restoration of heated tissues and their elasticity and firmness will return. If there are problems such as calluses, corns, thorns, spurs, salt deposits, skin diseases, fungi on the feet, infrared heat will lead to an accelerated process of regeneration (restoration).

Lymphatic drainage effect.

The cells are washed on all sides by intercellular fluid. The intercellular fluid collects and is removed from the tissues using the lymphatic system. With the help of capillaries, arterial blood comes to each cell. Venous blood is removed from the cell. In the process of life, waste substances partially enter the venous blood and partially into the intercellular fluid. In the event of the onset of any illness or stress, mechanical impact, injury, a situation such as the intercellular substance does not have time to remove waste (waste materials during the life of the cell). This is a well-known term - slagging. Slagging is directly related to poor lymph outflow. Excess or inactive water is drawn to waste by diffusion, which leads to swelling of the organ or tissue. Infrared heat improves the outflow of lymph, which leads to the removal of toxins and excess water (removes puffiness). The threat of cancer is reduced, tissue trophism (cell nutrition) is improved, where each cell can be renewed. The intercellular substance, rising through the lymph flow, enters the lymph node, which is a filter.

The lymph nodes contain white blood cells - lymphocytes (they act as guards), they fight infections, viruses and cancer cells, among others. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow.

The effect of infrared heat on veins and blood vessels.

The vessels have a smooth surface inside so that red blood cells can slide along the internal channel. The quality of the internal surface depends on the number of capillaries inside the vessel wall. As a result of stress, in old age, as a result of smoking, microcirculation inside a large vessel is disrupted, which leads to a deterioration in the condition of the vessel wall. The wall of the vessel ceases to be smooth and elastic. Cholesterol and large fractions form an osterosclerotic plaque, impeding the flow of blood along this channel. Blood flow through the narrowed channel worsens, which contributes to increased blood pressure. Infrared heat resumes the flow through the capillaries inside the vessel wall, after which the inner wall becomes smooth and elastic, and special systems in the blood itself corrode the blood clot (plaque).

Like the concept of gravitational mass of a body in Newtonian mechanics, the concept of charge in electrodynamics is the primary, basic concept.

Electric charge is a physical quantity that characterizes the property of particles or bodies to enter into electromagnetic force interactions.

Electric charge is usually represented by the letters q or Q.

The totality of all known experimental facts allows us to draw the following conclusions:

There are two types of electric charges, conventionally called positive and negative.

Charges can be transferred (for example, by direct contact) from one body to another. Unlike body mass, electric charge is not an integral characteristic of a given body. The same body under different conditions can have a different charge.

Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. This also reveals the fundamental difference between electromagnetic forces and gravitational ones. Gravitational forces are always attractive forces.

One of the fundamental laws of nature is the experimentally established law of conservation of electric charge .

In an isolated system, the algebraic sum of the charges of all bodies remains constant:

The law of conservation of electric charge states that in a closed system of bodies processes of creation or disappearance of charges of only one sign cannot be observed.

From a modern point of view, charge carriers are elementary particles. All ordinary bodies consist of atoms, which include positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons and neutral particles - neutrons. Protons and neutrons are part of atomic nuclei, electrons form the electron shell of atoms. The electric charges of a proton and an electron are exactly the same in magnitude and equal to the elementary charge e.

In a neutral atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in the shell. This number is called atomic number . An atom of a given substance may lose one or more electrons or gain an extra electron. In these cases, the neutral atom turns into a positively or negatively charged ion.

Charge can be transferred from one body to another only in portions containing an integer number of elementary charges. Thus, the electric charge of a body is a discrete quantity:

Physical quantities that can only take a discrete series of values ​​are called quantized . Elementary charge e is a quantum (smallest portion) of electric charge. It should be noted that in modern physics of elementary particles the existence of so-called quarks is assumed - particles with a fractional charge and However, quarks have not yet been observed in a free state.

In common laboratory experiments, a electrometer ( or electroscope) - a device consisting of a metal rod and a pointer that can rotate around a horizontal axis (Fig. 1.1.1). The arrow rod is isolated from the metal body. When a charged body comes into contact with the electrometer rod, electric charges of the same sign are distributed over the rod and the pointer. Electrical repulsion forces cause the needle to rotate through a certain angle, by which one can judge the charge transferred to the electrometer rod.

The electrometer is a rather crude instrument; it does not allow one to study the forces of interaction between charges. The law of interaction of stationary charges was first discovered by the French physicist Charles Coulomb in 1785. In his experiments, Coulomb measured the forces of attraction and repulsion of charged balls using a device he designed - a torsion balance (Fig. 1.1.2), which was distinguished by extremely high sensitivity. For example, the balance beam was rotated 1° under the influence of a force of the order of 10 -9 N.

The idea of ​​​​the measurements was based on Coulomb's brilliant guess that if a charged ball is brought into contact with exactly the same uncharged one, then the charge of the first will be divided equally between them. Thus, a way was indicated to change the charge of the ball by two, three, etc. times. In Coulomb's experiments, the interaction between balls whose dimensions were much smaller than the distance between them was measured. Such charged bodies are usually called point charges.

Point charge called a charged body, the dimensions of which can be neglected in the conditions of this problem.

Based on numerous experiments, Coulomb established the following law:

The interaction forces between stationary charges are directly proportional to the product of the charge moduli and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:

Interaction forces obey Newton's third law:

They are repulsive forces with the same signs of charges and attractive forces with different signs (Fig. 1.1.3). The interaction of stationary electric charges is called electrostatic or Coulomb interaction. The branch of electrodynamics that studies the Coulomb interaction is called electrostatics .

Coulomb's law is valid for point charged bodies. In practice, Coulomb's law is well satisfied if the sizes of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance between them.

Proportionality factor k in Coulomb's law depends on the choice of system of units. In the International SI System, the unit of charge is taken to be pendant(Cl).

Pendant is a charge passing in 1 s through the cross section of a conductor at a current strength of 1 A. The unit of current (Ampere) in SI is, along with units of length, time and mass basic unit of measurement.

Coefficient k in the SI system it is usually written as:

Where - electrical constant .

In the SI system, the elementary charge e equal to:

Experience shows that the Coulomb interaction forces obey the superposition principle:

If a charged body interacts simultaneously with several charged bodies, then the resulting force acting on a given body is equal to the vector sum of the forces acting on this body from all other charged bodies.

Rice. 1.1.4 explains the principle of superposition using the example of the electrostatic interaction of three charged bodies.

The principle of superposition is a fundamental law of nature. However, its use requires some caution when we are talking about the interaction of charged bodies of finite sizes (for example, two conducting charged balls 1 and 2). If a third charged ball is brought to a system of two charged balls, then the interaction between 1 and 2 will change due to charge redistribution.

The principle of superposition states that when given (fixed) charge distribution on all bodies, the forces of electrostatic interaction between any two bodies do not depend on the presence of other charged bodies.