The structure of the eye. Central and peripheral vision Methods of teaching Russian as a native language in secondary school: linguistic and methodological aspect

The eye is spherical in shape and located in a bony cavity called the orbit, or orbit.

Eye socket is a pyramid whose walls are formed by bones. The contents of the orbit are in close contact with the paranasal sinuses, so many sinus diseases adversely affect the organ of vision.

Orbit also communicates with the cranial cavity. In its upper outer section there is a small depression where the lacrimal gland is located. The liquid secreted by the lacrimal gland - a tear - washes the eyeball and then, through the lacrimal openings and canaliculi of the upper and lower eyelids, enters the lacrimal sac, and then into the nasal cavity.

Most of the orbit is made up of loose fatty tissue; the eye is located in its anterior section. In addition to fatty tissue, the orbit contains blood vessels, nerves and muscles that carry out eye movements.

The protective apparatus of the eye includes the eyelids, mucous membrane, bony walls of the orbit, and lacrimal organs. The eyelids consist of skin, muscles, cartilage, and on the inside are covered with a thin mucous membrane - the conjunctiva.

The diameter of the eye is on average 24 mm.

Outer shell of the eye- white, opaque sclera - passes into the transparent cornea in the anterior section. The outer shell of the eye maintains its shape and protects the internal structures of the eye from external harmful influences.

The cornea takes part in the refraction of light rays; it is completely transparent and spherical.

Behind the outer shell of the eyeball is the choroid - a vascular tract consisting of many vessels that carry blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the eye. The vascular tract consists of three parts - the iris (iris), the ciliary (ciliary) body and the choroid itself. The iris is located in the front of the eye and contains the coloring substance melanin. Depending on its amount, people have different eye colors - blue, gray, green, brown. If there is little melanin, the eye color is light; if there is a large amount of melanin, the eyes are dark.

In the center of the iris there is a hole - the pupil. The size of the pupil may change depending on the lighting. The iris acts as a diaphragm and regulates the amount of light entering the retina. So, in bright light the pupil narrows, in twilight it becomes wider so that more light falls on the retina, as in a camera. In this way, clarity of the image of objects is achieved.

Ciliary body (ciliary body) is an intermediate part between the iris and the choroid and is a ring about 8 mm wide. It contains the ciliary muscle and processes. Contraction of the muscle provides the ability to see clearly at different distances (accommodation), and the ciliary processes and iris produce intraocular fluid.

The choroid proper (choroid) makes up the posterior, most extensive part of the vascular tract. It consists of vessels of various sizes and is located between the sclera and the retina. The choroid is the energy base that ensures the visual act.

The inner layer of the eye is the retina(retina) is the most important and complex of all the membranes of the eye. It is here that the complex photochemical process of processing light energy into nervous stimulation occurs, which is transmitted along the optic nerve to the cortical department of vision, located in the occipital lobe of the brain. In the cerebral cortex, the process of processing nervous excitation occurs, as a result of which a visual sensation arises - an image of the objective world.

The retina contains about 6 million cones and 125 million rods. Cones are designed for daytime vision; they are insensitive to low light; with their help, the shape, color and details of objects are perceived. The sticks work at dusk and at night. In the central part of the retina there is a place called the macula, which is the area of ​​the clearest, distinct vision. It contains the bulk of the cones. As you move away from the center, the number of cones decreases and the number of rods increases. On the periphery of the retina there are only rods. Vision in the peripheral parts of the retina is less clear than in the central part and is called lateral or peripheral.

Central vision provides the ability to examine the details of objects, peripheral vision - the ability to navigate in space. With significant impairment of peripheral vision, independent movement of a person in space becomes impossible.

Behind the iris and pupil is the lens - a biconvex transparent lens. The lens, like the cornea, refracts light rays entering the eye and can change its curvature due to contraction of the muscle located in the ciliary body.

The ability of the lens to refract light rays more or less strongly allows you to clearly see objects at different distances. The lens does not have blood vessels or nerves; it is nourished by the diffusion of nutrients from the intraocular fluid. It consists of transparent fibers enclosed in a capsule. A dense core gradually forms in it. The space between the back surface of the iris and the front surface of the lens is called the posterior chamber of the eye. Behind the lens is a large cavity filled with a clear gel called the vitreous. In its structure, the vitreous body is a thin network of fibers, between which there is a colorless transparent gel. It is called glassy because it is completely transparent and resembles molten glass. The vitreous body, like the cornea and lens, is the refractive medium of the eye, through which rays of light, when refracted, are concentrated in focus on the retina.

Between the cornea and the iris there is a space filled with intraocular fluid, which is called the anterior chamber of the eye, the depth of which decreases with age along with a decrease in the volume of fluid in it. Intraocular fluid nourishes the cornea and lens and plays a large role in maintaining their transparency. It is produced in the ciliary body and constantly flows out of the eye through the angle of the anterior chamber.

The coordinated work of all parts of the eye ensures distance and near vision, color perception, orientation in space and the ability to see at dusk.

Parents and relatives of a child born blind are concerned with the question: “Will their baby be able to learn to move without assistance?” Parents' concerns are justified, ─ a severe visual defect affects the child's motor activity, his knowledge of the surrounding space and orientation in it.

Orientation in space refers to the ability of a blind child to determine his location among the surrounding objects and objects, the direction of the chosen movement; detect the object or object to which it is heading.

The ability of a person without vision to navigate in space is considered as an important condition for the formation of a full-fledged personality, as overcoming the isolation of the blind among people with normal vision. The inability of a blind child to independently navigate in space leads to the appearance of deviations that complicate his entire subsequent life.

Most parents know that vision underlies a person’s perception of space and the objects that fill it. Vision ensures safe movement in free space. Vision is a kind of “probe” of space. Parents have a question: “How does a person without vision perceive space?”, “Is a blind person able to determine the direction of movement?” and etc.

The human sciences (philosophy, psychology, etc.), the practical life of blind people who have achieved high mental and physical development, have convincingly proven that even totally blind people can correctly and accurately perceive the surrounding space and navigate it independently.

Philosophy and psychology have substantiated the main features and mechanisms of orientation: a person’s orientation in space is ensured by the reflex activity of the brain. The brain of both a sighted and a blind person receives information about space through the senses. A blind child receives such information through hearing, touch, motor analyzer, and smell. The brain of a totally blind child does not receive information through vision. But intact sensory organs transmit the necessary information to the brain, which analyzes and summarizes it. As a result, a person without vision forms correct ideas about the surrounding space and the objects that fill it. He is able to determine his location, the approximate distance of objects relative to himself (in front ─ behind, left ─ right, etc.).

The famous Russian psychologist F.P. Shemyakin proved that “spatial representations can also be formed in the blind. They arise even without visual images.”

These briefly summarized conclusions of modern typhlology are very important for the parents of a blind child to understand the fact that although a visual defect limits the possibilities of independent orientation, under certain conditions the difficulties can be overcome.

What conditions should be created for a blind child so that he can learn to move in familiar and unfamiliar spaces, perceive objects, identify them, and determine the right direction? In revealing these conditions, we rely on the important position of the famous Russian defectologist L. S. Vygotsky: “If a sighted child learns a lot by imitation in natural life experience, then a blind child must be specially trained in this.” The role of parents and relatives of a blind child is to act from the first months of his life as a kind, affectionate, but persistent and qualified teacher, managing the process of his development, stimulating all his potential abilities in spatial orientation. But so that parents’ guidance in the development of a blind child does not turn into a tragedy, one should know what to teach and when to begin teaching spatial orientation to a child with a severe visual defect.

Learning spatial orientation begins in the first months of a blind child’s life.

Like any normally seeing child, a blind child comprehends space based on movement, but due to a visual defect, the rate of development of his motor system is slow and requires constant assistance from an adult. A blind child does not see the objects around him, so he does not have the need to make the necessary movements to understand the world around him. A blind child’s cognition of space and orientation in it are gradual in nature and are associated with the development of his motor system. The first stage (the same as for a sighted child) begins with knowledge of the parts of his body and the ability to make the necessary movements with them: raising his head, manipulating his arms and legs, turning over from side to side, on his tummy, etc. A normally seeing child makes these movements based on the visual and verbal prompting of an adult, especially the mother.

The mother encourages a blind child to make the necessary movements in the first months of life through contact with him and sound signals, but not very strong and sharp, since the baby may be frightened by them. In the first weeks of life, the child reacts to external stimuli with his whole body. But gradually the blind baby, like his sighted peer, must learn to respond to stimuli with parts of the body: head, arms, legs, etc. But the mother must teach these movements to the blind child, thereby contributing to the formation of ideas about the parts of the body and the movements available to it. For example: the mother bends the baby’s legs at the knees, raises the body along with the legs, rotates the body and head in any direction, etc. At the same time, with caress and touch to the child’s body, she “encourages” a successfully performed movement.

The child should be taught to “understand” parts of his body and the body of another person: mother, father and other family members. To do this, you should allow the child to touch the face of the person leaning towards him, his hands, and the mother’s chest. Subsequently, this experience will be very useful to him; with the help of touch, he will distinguish a person close to him from random, unfamiliar people.

In order for a blind child to learn to control his head in the first months of life, it is advisable to do the following exercises. Place the baby on his tummy. Blind babies often refuse to be placed on their tummy. When a baby is placed on his tummy, he usually raises his head sharply. At this moment, the mother touches the baby’s head with her face and gently strokes him. A blind child begins to learn that raising his head and turning towards a pleasant voice is accompanied by affection. When your baby is lying on his tummy on a table or other hard surface, you can stroke his back so that he straightens his head and torso. If the child is lying on his tummy on his mother's lap, you should attract his attention with some kind of sound toy that he can touch and the position of which should be changed (top, left, etc.).

The second stage in the development of movements of the child’s body parts, with the help of which he will learn to raise his head, neck, and straighten his back, is relying on his hands. To do this, you can use a large inflatable ball on which the child places his hands. While supporting the child, you should slowly turn the ball, attracting the baby's attention with a gentle touch. Daily activities with your child allow you to complicate the exercises and thereby contribute to the development of the motor system. If the baby is not given assistance in the first months, he may be in the same position and in the same place. The baby (both sighted and blind) constantly needs a variety of movements. By placing him in different positions, we help him develop balance (vestibular system) and strengthen his muscles. Each new position (on the side, on the back, on the tummy, body rotation, etc.) of the child’s body gives him a new sensation, strengthens self-confidence and prepares him for independent movements. When a child learns to control his head, he will be able to independently move his arms, make grasping movements, “play” with his hands, and lean on them.

Between the fourth and sixth months of life, joint movements of the head and arms allow the blind child to master the first elements of balance and learn to swing. Now it will be possible for the child to begin mastering a new position ─ “sitting”.

Learning the sitting position is a long and gradual process. Before a child masters this position, he must learn to grab the fingers of an adult and hold on to them in a “sitting” position, and hold rattles, the location of which he recognizes by sound. Children, even with residual vision, do not perceive surrounding objects at a distance. Use a sounding toy, shake it in front of the child's face, and then move it a short distance away so that the child can reach and hold it.

Now you can start teaching your blind baby to sit. There is a whole system of exercises aimed at teaching the baby the “sitting” position, which is an important point on the way to mastering such a type of movement as crawling “on all fours”. When the child begins to sit up, he should be taught to move on his stomach. This is important for developing forward and backward movements with the arms.

A sighted child begins to crawl in order to reach a toy that is interesting to him, but located far from him. A child who does not see a toy or object does not begin to crawl. The baby will begin to crawl if there is a motivating reason: the mother is close, but in order to touch her, you need to make a movement in the direction from where the baby hears her gentle voice. The child should be taught to get into a “all fours” position, straighten his back, support him at the waist and rock his body back and forth (a blind baby may not independently master the poses and movements that underlie crawling).

The following exercises are recommended to help a blind child learn to crawl. Take a sounding toy that you can push in front of you. The child in the “sitting” position is invited to take the toy in his hands and “examine” it. Then the adult takes the toy from the child’s hands and places it in front of him. The child is placed in a position “on all fours” and pushed from behind. At the same time, the toy is moved forward and the child is encouraged to crawl towards it. You should praise the child with words and gentle stroking if he crawls to the toy and takes it in his hands.

At the second stage of development of movements, a blind child may develop a fear of space if he constantly bumps into sharp corners of furniture, falls (especially backwards) and hurts himself. Bumps and falls prevent the development of motor activity as a prerequisite for orientation in space. Falls should not limit his safe movement on all fours. All family members should take care of this.

The third stage in teaching blind children to move in space is associated with the vertical position of the child’s body ─ moving with their legs. First of all, parents teach a blind child to stand on his feet, hold his body upright, and encourage him to take his first steps. You can put your favorite toy at a distance accessible from the child. The baby is placed on his feet and helped to take a step forward. How? One of the adults takes the child by the armpits, slightly lifts him by one leg or the other so that the child can alternately transfer the weight from one leg to the other. It is possible and necessary to teach the child, while raising one leg, to stand on the other, maintaining balance. To reinforce the forward movement, the child can hold on to the playpen or high chair and push it in front of him. Sometimes you should put the baby on your feet, holding his hands from behind. When taking steps, the adult seems to be leading the child, who simultaneously takes the first steps with him.

Some children find it easier to take their first steps if they walk sideways, holding onto furniture. Parents attract their attention with a sound toy or voice. You can stretch a rope across the room at the level of the baby's waist. He, holding on to the rope, will move freely from one corner of the room to the opposite. When teaching a child to walk, you should pay attention to the need to squat when performing tasks such as “pick up a toy or a fallen thing,” “touch the feet of an adult standing next to you, and you will find out what kind of shoes he is wearing,” etc.

The child takes his first steps in a familiar room ─ room. But even on the street, he must distinguish with his feet a sandy path, grass, etc. He must be taught this. A blind child (like any other) begins to walk with his legs spread wide apart for balance. But if you don’t teach him to move his legs correctly when walking, then the skill of walking with his legs wide apart will become fixed. The gait of such a blind child, and then a teenager and an adult, begins to differ sharply from the gait of a sighted peer and makes movement difficult. It is difficult for a blind child to learn movements such as running, jumping, and jumping by imitation. Therefore, one of the parents tells and shows the child the starting position when jumping, running, etc. For example, a mother tells her child: “First, put your legs together, then bend your knees and put your arms back (shows how). Then throw your arms forward and at the same time lift your legs off the ground. You will feel your body rise up."

A distinctive feature of a blind child's walking is the uncoordinated movement of his arms and legs. Therefore, parents should teach their child to make proper hand movements when walking.

At the third stage of development of the child’s motor system, the skill of walking with outstretched arms, which protects from bruises, arises and then becomes consolidated. Bruises and constant falls contribute to the development in a blind child of fear of space, nervous tension, and lack of confidence in his abilities. Overcoming the fear of space in a blind child who begins to explore the world around him is facilitated by constant verbal contact with his mother, grandmother, father, brothers and sisters.

Tell your child when he is moving around in familiar and unfamiliar spaces where he is. For example, tell him that he is in the bedroom or family room, in front of the bed or sofa. The toys are on the floor by the sofa, and you are sitting on the sofa. Let him touch the sofa, toys, you, correlate their location relative to himself and, during the period of speech formation, begin to assimilate the meaning of prepositions expressing certain positions of objects in space ─ near the wall, at the table, under the bed, etc. Understanding these words ─ the first step to a blind child learning directions. The practice of using these prepositions will cement their meaning in the mind of a blind child, and will facilitate the understanding of verbal instructions in later stages of life. A normally sighted child learns direction through vision. When he is told: “The ball is behind his back,” the child turns his head back. A blind child should be shown what “behind his back” means and what kind of body turn he needs to make to find the ball.

Most preschool children have residual vision, which allows them not only to distinguish the direction of a light source, but also the color and shape of nearby objects . Of course, the orientation capabilities of blind children with residual vision will increase significantly, but only on condition that you teach them how to use it rationally. Let your child know that you like it when he tries to use his vision (caress him, give him something). Carry an infant with residual vision in your arms around the room and tell him what he should look at.

Infants see nearby objects best. If you want the child to see an object, bring it closer to the child's eyes (no further than 15 cm). A good contrast is provided by the black and white combination. Children see better if the lighting is directed towards an object. When the lighting is too bright, the child closes his eyes. The light source should be behind the child's back. Typically, blind children with residual vision love to look at human faces, especially the faces of people close and pleasant to them: mother, grandmother, father, etc.

Contacts “face to face, eye to eye” stimulate “examination” of the child. Glowing decorations on the wall and ceiling are very attractive to children.

When a blind child with residual vision begins to crawl, tie a bright ribbon to his arm and draw the child's attention to it.

When a child begins to walk, pay attention to how far away he can distinguish objects and what size they are.

Already at 3-4 years old, you can allow your child to examine objects through a magnifying glass. If the baby has difficulty viewing objects in the space around him, then change the distance (bring the child’s face closer to the object), lighting, and use a contrasting background.

To attract the child’s attention and use his remaining vision, hang colored cellophane on the window, ─ the rustling will attract the child, and the color will allow him to look at it. You can glue silhouettes of objects familiar to your child to the windows. The active use of residual vision in orientation is facilitated by the coloring of wallpaper, a night light by the child’s bed, and moving objects.

If your child already wears glasses at the age of 3-4, then parents should remember that the lenses must be clean and free of scratches. Glasses should not fit tightly to the heads, they should be removed only as prescribed by a doctor.

The development of the motor system of a preschooler who is totally blind or with residual vision, and the ability to navigate in space in a primary school child, is based on play. In play (as the leading form of children's activity), the child develops both motor and cognitive abilities. Moving in space, a child animates objects, explores the capabilities of his body, communicates with other children, and gets to know the world of people. But the play activity of a blind child, as the leading form of mastering space, occurs on a narrowed sensory basis. Therefore, stimulation of the play activity of a blind child by adults presupposes knowledge of the patterns and characteristics of their mental, physical and personal development.

B) visual acuity c) nature of vision d) depth of vision e) simultaneous vision23. The ability to navigate in the surrounding space is provided by a) central vision b) peripheral vision c) color perception d) light perception24. Provides discrimination of the shape of small details and is responsible for object recognition a) peripheral vision b) visual field c) color vision d) central vision e) alternating vision25. A person’s ability to perform visual work with an acceptable number of minor errors over a certain period of time is a) the nature of visual fatigue b) visual productivity c) visual performance d) excessive visual strain26. The whole variety of color shades can be obtained by mixing three colors of the spectrum a) red, green, yellow b) red, blue, orange c) blue, red, green d) red, black, green e) green, violet, red27. A severe form of color vision disorder, characterized by a complete loss of the ability to distinguish colors a) dichromasia b) achromasia c) hemeralopia d) albinism28. For the first time, color vision disorder was described by a person who suffered from it: a) Louis Braille b) John Dalton c) Olga Skorokhodova d) Valentin Gayuy29. Space perceived by one eye with its motionless position and fixed head a) narrowing of the field of vision b) field of vision c) tube vision d) field of vision e) fragmentary perception30. Successive recognition of images and objects by visually impaired schoolchildren is caused by a) a violation of color discrimination functions b) a decrease in visual acuity c) a change in the boundaries of the visual field d) a violation of binocular vision31. A) cornea b) celiac body c) rod apparatus d) optic nerve e) lens32 is responsible for peripheral vision. The process of changing the refractive power of the eye during visual perception of objects a) aphakia b) agnosia c) activation d) accommodation e) anisometry33. The receptor part of the visual analyzer is a) optic nerve b) chiasm c) subcortical optic nerve d) retina e) macula 34. Accommodation of the eyes is regulated by a) correctly directed gaze b) convergence of parallel rays on the retina c) central nervous system d) correct installation of the visual axes35. With what type of vision is the perception of images stereoscopic a) simultaneous b) monocular c) alternating d) binocular e) depth36. The conjunctiva, cornea, iris, and the condition of the lens are examined with a) a muscle trainer b) a slit lamp c) a skiascopic ruler d) a stationary non-electric perimeter37. There are projection, tabular, computer, object-based methods for studying a) visual gaze b) visual field c) depth of vision d) nature of vision e) visual acuity38. When classified according to visual acuity, blind people with residual vision in the better seeing eye are children with Visus OV: a) from 0 to 0.04; b) from 0 to 0.5; c) from 0.01 to 0.04; d) from 0.1 to 0.2; e) from 0.05 to 0.239. Partial blindness – a) complete b) partial c) one eye d) resulting from injury 40.. Myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, amblyopia - visual impairment associated with a) impaired oculomotor function of the eye b) impaired visual field function c) insufficient satisfaction visual needs d) a disorder of the optical mechanisms of vision e) a violation of the binocular nature of vision 41.. Astigmatism is a) the main focus of the optical system of the eye - between the retina and the lens a) a combination of different types of refraction in the same eye b) the main focus of the optical system of the eye - behind the retina c) increased intraocular pressure d) refraction of the right and left eyes is unequal in type and degree42. Authors of the textbook “Fundamentals of Typhlopedagogy”, development, training and education of children with visual impairments a) B.K. Tuponogov, V.A. Feoktistova b) V.P. Ermakov, G.A. Yakunin c) L.I.Plaksina, L.I. Solntseva43.. Alternating strabismus - a) restriction of eye mobility b) the eye deviates inwards, towards the nose c) only one eye deviates d) squints first one eye, then the other44. Aphakia is a visual defect caused by a) clouding of the lens b) absence of the lens c) subluxation of the lens d) change in the curvature of the lens45. Sympathetic inflammation is caused by a) infection b) a severe cold c) incorrect selection of vision correction means d) injury to one of the eyes46. Significant reduction in the size of the eyeball – a) exophthalmos b) microphthalmos c) buphthalmos d) hydrophthalmos47. The verbal representation of an object in the blind is formed by a) tactile perception b) verbal description of the object c) a combination of verbal description and tactile perception d) perception using all intact analyzers48. Impairment of motor and coordination functions in children with profound visual impairments - a) activation of compensation processes b) a form of abnormal development c) limitation of mastering social experience d) secondary deviations e) tertiary deviations49. Children with multisensory pathology a) blind and visually impaired with mental retardation b) blind and visually impaired with pathology of the musculoskeletal system c) deaf-blind d) blind and visually impaired oligophrenic50. Difficulties in the formation of non-speech means of communication in children with profound visual impairments are explained by a) poor speech development b) lack of communication skills c) poor coordination of movement d) inability to imitate the actions and expressive means of others e) poverty of vocabulary51. Verbalism for a blind child a) secondary deviation b) primary defect c) tertiary deviation d) branch of rehabilitation treatment52. Blind children receive sensations from movement, pressure, heat, cold, pain with the help of a) a system of communication connections b) verbal communication c) auditory perception d) tactile perception53. Sensitization - a) decreased skin sensitivity b) increased skin sensitivity c) lack of skin sensitivity d) pathological changes in the skin54. Haptics is a type of touch a) passive b) active c) mediated d) instrumental55. How many main stages is tactile examination divided into? a) 2 b) 4 c) 3 d) 556. The visual capabilities of a student depend on a) the time parameters of the dynamics of the decline in visual functions b) field of vision, color perception, light sensitivity c) the state of the tracking functions of the eye d) taking into account the entire complex of functional disorders e) rules for using optical equipment, visual load regime57. The purpose of correctional work in the classroom for children with visual impairments is a) the formation of sensory experience b) correction of vision functions c) the formation of basic subject concepts that are adequate to existing ones d) the creation of optimal conditions for the teaching and educational process. e) the expected effect of compensation for the defect58. The mode of continuous visual load in a lesson for blind and visually impaired children is no more than: a) 25 minutes b) 15 minutes c) 10 minutes d) 20 minutes59. Visually impaired children need a 20-30 minute break when continuously watching TV after a) 1 hour b) 45 minutes c) 1 – 1.5 hours d) 2 hours60. The leading reference point for a blind child when learning to navigate in space a) objects of the spatial environment b) the voice of the accompanying person c) a given reference point d) his own body e) turns along the route61. Author of the textbook “Theoretical Foundations of Typhlopedagogy” a) B.K. Tuponogov b) E.M. Sterninina c) L.S.Sekovets d) N.N.Malofeev62. When walking with an accompanying person, you should lead the blind person a) by taking the hand on the right b) by placing the hand on the shoulder on the right c) by taking the hand on the left d) the blind person takes the hand of the accompanying person with the left hand63. The blind man's cane should be a) bright in color b) white in color c) the color is chosen according to taste d) the color does not matter64. Indirect tactile perception a) examination of an object with both hands b) using typhlotechnical means c) reading raised dotted font using a stylus d) examination using residual vision65. Monomanual tactile perception for a blind child a) right hand b) left hand c) two hands d) one (any) hand66. Correct perception of an object by a blind child involves examination a) from top to bottom with two hands b) from bottom to top with two hands c) from right to left with the advantage of the right hand d) with both hands using an algorithm for tactile examination of a certain group of objects67. The most successful way of developing independent performance of an action by a blind child is a) verbal explanation b) leading to the correct method of action by eliminating incorrect decisions c) performing actions with the help of a teacher d) practical demonstration68. The main condition for the rehabilitation of the blind is a) a decent financial situation b) level of education c) the creation of optimal living conditions d) inclusion in activities e) the presence of good care and attention 69. The type of family relationships that creates a feeling of inferiority in a child with a visual impairment a) an atmosphere of excessive love and worries b) excessive severity, firmness c) emotional detachment d) ignoring the child’s difficulties71. Orderly ways of interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving the goals of education - a) sensory experience of students b) differentiated approach to teaching c) teaching methods d) types of interaction of the child with the open world e) correctional and developmental orientation of education72. Sensory readiness for school learning, development of visual-motor coordination, visual memory, perception of images of complex shapes, perception of plot images a) types of educational activities b) indicators of visual perception c) analysis of visual acuity and thinking d) cognitive activity 73. Maximum class size for the visually impaired is up to a) 8 b) 10 c) 12 d) 6 people74. The optimal level of illumination of the working surface in schools for the visually impaired a) 100-250 lux b) 250-500 lux c) not lower than 500 lux d) 700 lux75. Allows you to take into account the individual visual, age, psychophysical and personal characteristics of students in the structure of the Federal Basic Plan a) invariant part; b) mandatory subgroup and individual classes; c) state final certification; d) variable part. 76. Taking into account individual, psychophysical characteristics, and implementing a differentiated approach are solved at all stages of educational activities in calendar, thematic, lesson plans: a) educational tasks; b) educational tasks; c) developmental tasks; d) correction tasks77. Vision correction – a) drug treatment of eye pathologies b) correction of refractive errors of the eye with optical lenses c) surgical treatment of eye diseases d) improvement of vision with special exercises e) oxygen therapy78. The main condition for the formation of the personality of a child with visual impairment is a) attention from adults b) cognitive interest c) optimal opportunities for acquiring broad social experience d) good conditions in the family, school or boarding school79. Author of the program “Content of the teacher’s work with primary school students for children with visual impairments” a) L.I. Solntseva b) V.P. Ermakov c) L.P. Grigorieva d) V.Z. Deniskina80. Author of the book “Development of visual perception in children with visual impairments” a) V.P. Ermakov. b) B.K. Tuponogov c) L.I. Plaksina d) V.A. Feoktistova

Teacher of the deaf

25. The mental development of persons with hearing impairments belongs to the type of ontogenesis:

a) deficientm) distortedm) damagedm) delayed26. The criteria for classifying children into groups of deaf, late-deafened and hard of hearing according to R.M. Bosky. are: a) degree of hearing loss b) time of onset of hearing loss c) level of speech development d) all criteria28. The peculiarities of the imagination of deaf children are due to: a) slow formation of their speech b) instability of attention c) strength of memorization d) all reasons30. What is the primary defect in deafness: a) disturbances in the development of personality b) hearing impairment c) disturbance in the development of speech and lag in it d) the uniqueness of the development of all cognitive processes31. Identify the author of the following concept: “The use of semantic units of speech - words, phrases and phrases - as material for auditory classes. When selecting material for classes, the prompting situation is excluded.” a) E.I. Leonhard b) G.A. Zaitseva c) P. Guberina d) Kuzmicheva E.P.32. G.A. Zaitseva is the author of the methodological system: a) Verbotonal b) Bilingual education of the deaf c) “Rehabilitation of deaf and hard of hearing children and their integration into the hearing society” d) Biological and medical33. The human speech apparatus includes: a) the brain with subcortical nodes and the pathways of the corresponding nerves b) lungs with bronchi and trachea (windpipe) c) larynx, with vocal cords d) extension tube (pharynx, nose, mouth) e ) all components36. Breathing during speech is characterized by: a) the predominance of the exhalation phase over the inhalation phase b) the predominance of the inhalation phase over the exhalation phase c) equal phases d) interruption of the exhalation phase39. Determine the acoustic features characteristic of a group of vowel sounds: a) tonal sounds b) sonorant sounds c) noisy d) soft e) hard40. Highlight the main task of teaching pronunciation to the deaf: a) ensure sufficient intelligibility of oral speech b) establish the oral speech of the deaf as a way of communicating with others c) create a base of language proficiency d) create a sensory base for the deaf to assimilate oral speech41. Indicate the analyzers that enable a deaf person to perceive oral coherent speech: a) auditory b) visual c) cutaneous d) motor e) all analyzers42. Highlight the sections of the pronunciation training program: a) means of communication for the deaf b) lip reading c) speech sounds and their combinations d) all sections43. The initial and basic units of teaching pronunciation using the analytical-synthetic method: a) phonemes b) syllables c) words and phrases d) texts45. Correlate the standard requirements for the pronunciation of the number of syllables in a phrase on one exhalation in grades 6-12: a) 10 – 12 syllables b) 12 – 14 syllables c) 6 – 8 syllables d) 16 or more syllables46. What type of defect does the characteristic refer to: “The voice is low, soundless, approaching a whisper, with a large air leak.” a) with a violation of the strength of the voice b) with a violation of the normal pitch c) with a violation of the timbre of the voice d) with a violation of the strength and height47. Determine the defect associated with a violation of the pitch of the voice: a) nasal voice b) quiet, weak c) loud d) falsetto49. Systematic work on the pronunciation of a word covers the following aspects of its phonetic design: a) sound-syllable structure of the word b) rhythmic structure of the word c) orthoepy d) tempo of pronunciation e) all aspects of the work50. Indicate the main sections of work on words (as opposed to types of work) in the process of teaching pronunciation in a school for the deaf: a) work on word stress b) familiarization with orthoepic rules, application of these rules in speech c) composing sentences and phrases d) all sections51. Select from the listed sections of work that relate only to work on the pronunciation of the phrase: a) unity of pronunciation b) logical stress c) tempo of pronunciation d) orthoepy52. Determine the following types of activities related to working on the tempo of speech: a) repeating after the teacher (based on auditory-visual and auditory perception) words at a slow and fast pace b) alternating slow and fast pronunciation of words c) learning tongue twisters d) all types of activities53 . Indicate the general directions in teaching the pronunciation of speech sounds to deaf children: a) the formation of the primary ability to pronounce sounds by imitation b) automation of sound using the child’s residual hearing c) automation of pronunciation skills under the control of a teacher d) all directions54. Phonetic rhythm: a) correctional method of training and education of people with speech pathology b) rehabilitation method of education, training and treatment of children with speech pathology c) a system of motor exercises in which various movements are combined with the utterance of certain speech material d) all methods55. Classification of sounds according to the presence or absence of an obstruction in the oral cavity a) hard - soft b) nasal - oral c) vowels - consonants d) voiced - voiceless56. The formation of auditory-speech concepts of hearing-impaired people depends on: a) the state of hearing b) the level of speech development c) individual characteristics d) all factors57. Highlight one of the most important and difficult to implement among the principles of development of auditory perception: a) the principle of the gradual formation of skills to distinguish speech and its elements by ear b) the principle of integration of speech material c) the use of speech as a means of developing speech hearing d) the principle of developing auditory self-control58. Indicate which of the indicated principles of development of auditory perception the characteristic applies to: “A consistent transition from coarse auditory differentiations to more subtle and accurate ones.” a) the principle of developmental exercises b) the principle of the connection between the development of auditory perception and pronunciation c) the principle of the gradual formation of skills d) the principle of pronunciation correction59. Specify the goals for the development of auditory perception of non-speech sounds: a) the general development of children, their mental activity b) adaptation of children with hearing impairment in a hearing environment c) development of auditory attention to environmental sounds d) all goals60. Correlate the content of training with the period of formation of speech hearing in children: “Intensive development of auditory perception with the formation of the skill of listening to speech. Long-term auditory training using SUA (sound amplification equipment), accumulation of an auditory vocabulary.” a) initial period (0-1 grade) b) main period (2-5 grades) c) period of active use of an individual hearing aid (6-12 grades) d) preschool period61. Specify the requirements for the teacher and student, without which the effectiveness of an individual lesson cannot be achieved: a) taking into account the state of auditory function b) dosage of auditory load c) the use of sound amplification equipment (sound amplification equipment) d) the use of different types of speech perception62. Determine the first stage of the gradual inclusion of new material in the auditory vocabulary of deaf children (according to E.P. Kuzmicheva): a) unfamiliar speech material is offered to children for auditory discrimination without prior explanation b) speech material is perceived by children auditory-visually, and then auditorily a ) material is gradually introduced into familiar speech material, the sound image of which is unfamiliar to children d) speech material is offered auditory-visually63. Select from the listed types of work in an individual lesson related to the development of auditory perception: a) differentiating conversational material using sound-amplifying equipment b) exercises for the voice, lips, tongue c) working with a schematic sound profile d) exercises to develop articulatory differentiation64. Indicate the forms of organization of educational activities related to the development of auditory perception of deaf children: a) individual lesson b) frontal lesson c) musical-rhythmic lesson d) general education lesson e) all forms of organization

1. Methods of teaching Russian as a native language in secondary school: linguistic and methodological aspect

   Program

   The publication contains a program, methodological recommendations for studying the linguistic and methodological aspect of teaching Russian as a native language in secondary school, as well as recommendations for students’ teaching practice.

2. Special course “Peculiarities of teaching the Russian language in national schools” (for third-year bachelor’s degree philologists)

   Program

   The professional training of bachelor students of the Faculty of Philology, future teachers of the Russian language at school, includes a special course “Peculiarities of teaching the Russian language in a national school,” designed for 36 hours of classroom lessons.

3. 032700. 62. 01 Domestic philology: Russian language and literature annotations of work programs of academic disciplines

   Literature

   The goal is to form among students through the main cultural and historical eras a unified understanding of the historical path of Russian civilization, to educate the principles of citizenship and a sense of patriotism, to develop their professional

4. Program for advanced training of teachers of Russian language and literature “Current problems of content and teaching of Russian language and literature in the context of modernization of education”

   Program

   Structure and content of the Unified State Exam (USE) in Russian language and literature. Methods of preparing students to work with Unified State Examination materials in Russian language and literature.

5. Thanks to the eyes, these amazing organs, we have a unique opportunity to see everything around us, to look at things far and near, to navigate in the dark, to navigate space, to move in it quickly and easily.

   Our vision makes our life richer, more informative, more active. Therefore, it is so important for a person to promptly solve all problems that arise with the eyes, because even the slightest possibility of stopping seeing this beautiful world is frightening.

   The eyes are a window to the world, they are a reflection of the state of our soul, they are a repository of riddles and secrets.
   

   In this article we will pay special attention to central and peripheral vision.

   What are their differences? How is their quality determined? What are the differences between peripheral and central vision in humans and animals, and how do animals see in general? And how to improve peripheral vision...

   This and much, much more will be discussed in this article.

   Central and peripheral vision. Interesting information.
   

   First about central vision.

   This is the most important element of human visual function.

   It received this name because... provided by the central portion of the retina and the central fovea. Gives a person the opportunity to distinguish shapes and small details of objects, therefore its second name is shaped vision.

   Even if it decreases slightly, a person will immediately feel it.

   The main characteristic of central vision is visual acuity.
   
   Her research is of great importance in assessing the entire human visual apparatus, for tracking various pathological processes in the organs of vision.

   Visual acuity refers to the ability of the human eye to distinguish between two points in space located close to each other, at a certain distance from the person.

   Let us also pay attention to such a concept as the visual angle, which is the angle formed between the two extreme points of the object in question and the nodal point of the eye.

   It turns out that the larger the visual angle, the lower its acuity.

   

   Now about peripheral vision.

   It provides a person’s orientation in space and makes it possible to see in darkness and semi-darkness.

   How to understand what is central and what is peripheral vision?
   
   Turn your head to the right, catch an object with your eyes, for example, a picture on the wall, and fix your gaze on any individual element of it. You see him well, clearly, don’t you?

   This is thanks to central vision. But besides this object, which you see so well, a large number of different things also come into your field of vision. This is, for example, a door to another room, a closet that stands next to the painting you have chosen, a dog sitting on the floor a little further away. You see all these objects unclearly, but, nevertheless, you see, you have the ability to capture their movement and react to it.

   This is peripheral vision.

   Both human eyes, without moving, are capable of covering 180 degrees along the horizontal meridian and a little less - about 130 degrees along the vertical.

   As we have already noticed, the acuity of peripheral vision is less than central. This is explained by the fact that the number of cones, from the center to the peripheral parts of the retina, decreases significantly.

   Peripheral vision is characterized by the so-called visual field.
   
   This is the space that is perceived by a fixed gaze.

   
   
   Peripheral vision is invaluable to humans.
   
   It is thanks to it that free, habitual movement in the space surrounding a person and orientation in the environment around us is possible.

   If peripheral vision is lost for some reason, then even with full preservation of central vision, the individual cannot move independently, he will bump into every object on his way, and the ability to see large objects with his gaze will be lost.

   What kind of vision is considered good?

   Now consider the following questions: how the quality of central and peripheral vision is measured, as well as what indicators are considered normal.

   First about central vision.
   
   We are accustomed to the fact that if a person sees well, they say about him “one in both eyes.”

   What does it mean? That each eye individually can distinguish two closely spaced points in space, which give an image on the retina at an angle of one minute. So it turns out to be one for both eyes.

   By the way, this is only the lower norm. There are people who have vision of 1,2, 2 or more.

   

   We most often use the Golovin-Sivtsev table to determine visual acuity, the same one with the well-known letters Ш B in the upper part. A person sits in front of the table at a distance of 5 meters and closes alternately his right and left eyes. The doctor points to the letters in the table, and the patient says them out loud.

   The vision of a person who can see the tenth line with one eye is considered normal.
   
   Peripheral vision.

   It is characterized by a field of view. Its change is an early and sometimes the only sign of some eye ailments.

   The dynamics of changes in the visual field makes it possible to assess the course of the disease, as well as the effectiveness of its treatment. In addition, through the study of this parameter, atypical processes in the brain are revealed.

   

   Studying the visual field is determining its boundaries, identifying defects in visual function within them.
   
   To achieve these goals, various methods are used.

   The simplest of them is the control one.
   
   Allows you to quickly, literally in a few minutes, without using any instruments, determine a person’s field of vision.

   The essence of this method is to compare the physician’s peripheral vision (which should be normal) with the patient’s peripheral vision.

   It looks like this. The doctor and the patient sit opposite each other at a distance of one meter, each of them closes one eye (opposite eyes close), and the open eyes act as a point of fixation. Then the doctor begins to slowly move his hand, which is located on the side, out of the field of view, and gradually bring it closer to the center of the field of view. The patient must indicate the moment when he sees her. The study is repeated from all sides.

   Using this method, a person's peripheral vision is only roughly assessed.

   There are also more complex methods that give deeper results, such as campimetry and perimetry.
   
   
   

   The boundaries of the visual field may vary from person to person and depend, among other things, on the level of intelligence and the structural features of the patient’s face.

   Normal indicators for white color are as follows: top - 50o, outward - 90o, top to outside - 70o, top inward - 60o, downward - 90o, downward - 60o, downward inward - 50o, inward - 50o.

   Color perception in central and peripheral vision.
   
   It has been experimentally established that human eyes can distinguish up to 150,000 shades and color tones.

   This ability has an impact on various aspects of a person’s life.

   Color vision enriches the picture of the world, gives the individual more useful information, and influences his psychophysical state.

   Colors are actively used everywhere - in painting, industry, scientific research...

   

   The so-called cones, light-sensitive cells that are found in the human eye, are responsible for color vision. But the rods are responsible for night vision. There are three types of cones in the retina, each of which is most sensitive to the blue, green and red parts of the spectrum.

   Of course, the picture we get thanks to central vision is better saturated with colors compared to the result of peripheral vision. Peripheral vision is better at picking up brighter colors, such as red or black.

   Women and men, it turns out, see differently!

   Interestingly, women and men see things somewhat differently.

   Due to certain differences in the structure of the eyes, representatives of the fair sex are able to distinguish more colors and shades than the majority of humanity.
   
   
   

   In addition, scientists have proven that men have better developed central vision, while women have better peripheral vision.

   This is explained by the nature of the activities of people of different sexes in ancient times.

   Men went hunting, where it was important to clearly concentrate on one object and not see anything else. And the women looked after the housing and had to quickly notice the slightest changes, disturbances in the usual flow of everyday life (for example, quickly notice a snake crawling into a cave).

   There is statistical evidence to support this statement. For example, in 1997, in the UK, 4,132 children were injured in road accidents, of which 60% were boys and 40% were girls.

   In addition, insurance companies note that women are much less likely than men to be involved in car accidents involving side impacts at intersections. But parallel parking is more difficult for beautiful ladies.

   

   Women also see better in the dark and notice more small details in a wide field compared to men.
   
   At the same time, the eyes of the latter are well adapted to tracking an object at a long distance.

   If we take into account other physiological characteristics of women and men, the following advice will be formed - during a long trip it is best to alternate as follows - give the woman the day, and the man the night.

   And a few more interesting facts.

   Beautiful ladies' eyes get tired more slowly than men's.

   In addition, women's eyes are better suited for observing objects at close range, so they can, for example, thread a needle much faster and more dexterously than men.

   People, animals and their vision.
   
   Since childhood, people have been fascinated by the question - how do animals, our beloved cats and dogs, birds soaring in the heights, creatures swimming in the sea see?

   Scientists have been studying the structure of the eyes of birds, animals and fish for a long time so that we can finally find out the answers that interest us.

   Let's start with our favorite pets - dogs and cats.

   The way they see the world is significantly different from the way a person sees the world. This happens for several reasons.
   
   First.

   Visual acuity in these animals is significantly lower than in humans. A dog, for example, has vision of approximately 0.3, and cats generally have 0.1. At the same time, these animals have an incredibly wide field of vision, much wider than that of humans.

   The conclusion can be drawn as follows: the eyes of animals are maximally adapted for panoramic vision.

   This is due to both the structure of the retina and the anatomical location of the organs.

   

   Second.

   Animals see much better than humans in the dark.

   It is also interesting that dogs and cats see even better at night than during the day. All thanks to the special structure of the retina and the presence of a special reflective layer.

   
   
   
   Third.

   Our pets, unlike humans, distinguish moving objects better than static objects.

   Moreover, animals have a unique ability to determine the distance at which an object is located.

   

   Quadruple.
   
   There are differences in the perception of colors. And this despite the fact that the structure of the cornea and lens in animals and humans is practically no different.

   Humans can distinguish many more colors than dogs and cats.

   And this is due to the structural features of the eyes. For example, a dog’s eyes have fewer “cones” responsible for color perception than a human’s. Therefore, they distinguish less colors.

   Previously, there was a general theory that the vision of animals, cats and dogs, is black and white.

   

   This is if we talk about the differences between human vision and pets.

   Now about other animals and birds.

   Monkeys, for example, see three times better than humans.

   Eagles, vultures, and falcons have extraordinary visual acuity. The latter can clearly see a target up to 10 cm in size at a distance of about 1.5 km. And the vulture is able to distinguish small rodents that are located 5 km away from it.

   The record holder in panoramic vision is the woodcock. It's almost circular!

   But the pigeon we are all familiar with has a viewing angle of approximately 340 degrees.

   Deep-sea fish see well in absolute darkness, seahorses and chameleons can generally look in different directions at the same time, and all because their eyes move independently of each other.

   Here are some interesting facts.

   How does our vision change throughout our lives?

   How does our vision, both central and peripheral, change during life? What kind of vision are we born with, and what kind of vision do we come to old age with? Let's pay attention to these issues.

   At different periods of life, people have different visual acuity.

   A person is born into the world, and his blood pressure will be low. At the age of four months, the child’s visual acuity is approximately 0.06, by the year it grows to 0.1-0.3, and only by the age of five (in some cases it takes up to 15 years) vision becomes normal.

   Over time, the situation changes. This is due to the fact that the eyes, like any other organs, undergo certain age-related changes; their activity gradually decreases.

   
   
   It is believed that deterioration of visual acuity is an inevitable or almost inevitable phenomenon in old age.
   
   Let us highlight the following points.
   
   

   *	With age, the size of the pupils decreases due to weakening of the muscles that are responsible for their regulation. As a result, the reaction of the pupils to the light flux worsens. This means that the older a person gets, the more light he needs for reading and other activities. In addition, in old age, changes in lighting brightness are very painful.
   *	Also, with age, the eyes recognize colors worse, the contrast and brightness of the image decreases. This is a consequence of a decrease in the number of retinal cells that are responsible for the perception of colors, shades, contrast and brightness. The world around an elderly person seems to fade and become dull.

   
   What happens to peripheral vision?
   
   It also gets worse with age - lateral vision worsens, visual fields narrow.

   This is very important to know and take into account, especially for people who continue to lead an active lifestyle, drive a car, etc.

   A significant deterioration in peripheral vision occurs after 65 years.
   

   The following conclusion can be drawn.

   A decrease in central and peripheral vision with age is normal, because the eyes, like any other organ of the human body, are susceptible to aging.

   I can't be with poor eyesight...
   
   Many of us have known since childhood what we want to be in adulthood.

   Some dreamed of becoming a pilot, some a car mechanic, some a photographer.

   Everyone would like to do exactly what they like in life – no more, no less. And what a surprise and disappointment it can be when, upon receiving a medical certificate for admission to a particular educational institution, it turns out that the long-awaited profession will not become yours, and all because of poor eyesight.

   Some people don’t even think that it can become a real obstacle to the implementation of plans for the future.

   

   So, let's figure out which professions require good vision.
   
   It turns out there are not so few of them.

   For example, visual acuity is necessary for jewelers, watchmakers, people involved in precision small instrument making in the electrical and radio engineering industries, in optical-mechanical production, as well as those who have a typographic profession (this could be a typesetter, proofreader, etc.).

   Undoubtedly, the vision of a photographer, seamstress, or shoemaker must be sharp.

   In all of the above cases, the quality of central vision is more important, but there are professions where peripheral vision also plays a role.

   For example, an aircraft pilot. No one will argue that his peripheral vision should be as good as his central vision.

   The profession of a driver is similar. Well-developed peripheral vision will allow you to avoid many dangerous and unpleasant situations, including emergency situations on the road.

   In addition, auto mechanics must have excellent vision (both central and peripheral). This is one of the important requirements for candidates when hiring for this position.

   Don't forget about the athletes either. For example, football players, hockey players, and handball players have peripheral vision that approaches ideal.

   

   There are also professions where it is very important to correctly distinguish colors (preservation of color vision).

   These are, for example, designers, seamstresses, shoemakers, and workers in the radio engineering industry.

   We train peripheral vision. A couple of exercises.
   
   You've probably heard about speed reading courses.

   The organizers undertake to teach you, in a couple of months and for not such a large amount of money, to swallow books one by one, and remember their content perfectly. So, the lion’s share of time in the courses is devoted to the development of peripheral vision. Subsequently, a person will not need to move his eyes along the lines of a book; he will immediately be able to see the entire page.

   Therefore, if you set yourself the goal of developing excellent peripheral vision in a short time, you can enroll in speed reading courses, and in the near future you will notice significant changes and improvements.

   But not everyone wants to spend time on such events.

   For those who want to improve their peripheral vision at home, in a calm environment, here are a few exercises.

   Exercise No. 1.
   
   Stand near the window and fix your gaze on some object on the street. This could be a satellite dish on a neighboring house, someone's balcony, or a slide on the playground.

   Recorded? Now, without moving your eyes and head, name the objects that are near your chosen object.

   
   

   Exercise No. 2.

   Open the book you are currently reading.

   Choose a word on one of the pages and fix your gaze on it. Now, without moving your pupils, try to read the words around the one on which you fixed your gaze.

   Exercise No. 3.

   For this you will need a newspaper.

   In it you need to find the narrowest column, and then take a red pen and draw a straight thin line in the center of the column, from top to bottom. Now, glancing only along the red line, without turning your pupils to the right and left, try to read the contents of the column.

   Don't worry if you can't do it the first time.

   When you are successful with a narrow column, choose a wider one, etc.

   Soon you will be able to look at entire pages of books and magazines.

   Orientation in space is the process of a person determining his location using some kind of reference system.

   Cause of difficulties experienced by blind people in orientation activities, that with blindness, firstly, the field narrows and the accuracy and differentiation of the perception of space and, accordingly, spatial representations decreases, and secondly, the ability to perceive the world remotely is significantly limited.

   These reasons make it difficult to develop spatial orientation skills and in some cases make its automation impossible. In many cases, sighted people determine their location, assess the situation and overcome obstacles automatically. At the same time, blind people perform similar operations under continuous control of consciousness. The most insignificant obstacle - a pothole on the sidewalk, a puddle, any change in even well-known terrain - which a sighted person overcomes without thinking, requires great attention and observation from the blind.

   Loss or profound impairment of the functions of vision, which plays a leading role in the spatial orientation of normally seeing people, leads to the fact that in the blind, other analyzers become leading

   The space in which the blind have to navigate usually varies in length, occupancy, etc., which determines the leading role of one or another analyzer.

   For the convenience of analyzing the process of orientation of the blind V.S. Sverlov, developed classification orientation according to the nature of space:

   1 . Orientation in the subject-cognitive space, which includes:

   a) orientation in a small space, inaccessible to touch even with one finger. In this case, the leading one is instrumental touch using a needle, nail, etc. Sometimes the tongue is used (threading a needle, examining the internal structure of a flower, etc.);

   b) orientation in space that fits under one or several touching fingers;

   c) orientation in space limited by the zone of simultaneous coverage of the hands. In the last two types, the leading one is active touch.

   2 . Orientation in the workspace. Here it stands out:

   a) orientation in space limited by the zone of action of the hands (orientation in everyday, educational, industrial operations);

   b) orientation in a space slightly larger than the range of action of the hands, thanks to stereotypical movements of the body (orientation in the space immediately adjacent to the workplace). These types of orientation are carried out mainly on the basis of sensory touch.

   3 . Orientation in a large space. This includes:

   
   

   a) orientation and enclosed spaces, where both motor and auditory sensitivity can be leading, depending on a number of conditions (the nature of the room, the purpose of orientation, etc.);

   b) orientation in open space or orientation on the ground, carried out with the help of hearing

   The role of the senses in the orientation of the blind

   The orientation process proceeds on the basis of the joint, integrative activity of intact analyzers, each of which, under certain objective conditions, can act as a leader.

   Impaired vision limits the ability to reflect space, but in most cases, partially sighted people, not to mention the visually impaired, continue to navigate visually. Only the most serious functional visual impairments observed in partially sighted people introduce certain specifics into this process: orientation in the subject-cognitive space becomes impossible or very difficult, and the boundaries of separate vision in a large space become sharply narrowed.

   The need to view objects from a wide angle makes it difficult to visually localize them in space, and subsequently to solve basic problems - choosing and maintaining a direction and detecting a target. Despite the difficulties that arise, partially sighted people, even in the absence of formal vision, continue to navigate a large space visually. The very presence of light perception gives a blind person the opportunity to navigate in a room by window openings, lighting fixtures and other light sources, which he distinguishes against a dark background. When navigating the terrain, alternating light and dark spots signal the blind person about the presence of obstacles.

   In the absence of visual orientation skills, some forms of vision pathology can adversely affect this process, disorienting the blind person. Such cases are observed when:

   1. diseases of the retina, causing the so-called “night blindness”, in which a person in twilight lighting becomes temporarily completely blind;

   2. with deformations of the visual field, when the patient sees the space around him only partially; for color vision impairment.

   With the help of active and instrumental touch, blind people not only perceive individual objects, but also establish their spatial relationships and localize them in space. Thanks to this, blind people often very accurately navigate their workspace, such as a desk or table, easily finding the items they need.

   Hearing plays an extremely important role in the spatial orientation of the blind. This is due to the fact that with complete or partial loss of vision, it becomes the leading type of sensitivity in distant perception of objects.

   Thanks to auditory sensations and perceptions, blind people are able to localize invisible objects in space that are sources of sound, determine the direction of its propagation, and judge the size and occupancy of a closed space by the distribution and quality of sound.

   An example of auditory orientation can serve as orientation for the blind on the street. In the process of this orientation, they determine the direction and speed of traffic, judge the size and occupancy of the space, determine the quality of the road surface, the presence of ledges and other irregularities, etc.

   Blind people often use reflected sound during orientation. Perceiving the sounds they make while moving, the blind quite accurately determine the direction and degree of distance of the object shielding the sound. For example, in order to determine whether there is an obstacle on the way, blind people clap their hands, snap their fingers, or tap their canes. Such sounds, reflected from the walls of houses and large objects, return to their source in a slightly modified form and make it possible to judge the size of the room, the presence of upholstered furniture, determine the location of a doorway or arch in the wall of the house, etc.

   The sense of smell is used quite often in the orientation practice of the blind, since, just like hearing, it can remotely signal the presence of a particular object. When blindness is complicated by deafness, its role increases significantly, since smell becomes the only type of distant sensitivity. Using their sense of smell, blind people locate objects that have specific odors. Smells, constantly inherent in one or another stationary object, serve as blind landmarks when moving in space.

   Topographical representations- these are ideas about the area that arise on the basis of the perception and localization of objects in space. Topographical representations are a complex set of memory images that reflect the shape, size), distance of objects and the direction in which they are located in relation to any reference point.

   The formation of topographical ideas occurs as a result of reflective, conditioned reflex activity of the brain. In the cumulative, integrative activity of many analytical systems in the perception of space, the leading role belongs to the motor analyzer.

   The experience of spatial orientation of blind people and experimental studies indicate that they have topographical ideas.

   Topographical representations come in two forms, differing in the level of generalization .

   F.N. Shemyakin identified representations like“map - path” and “map ~ overview”.

   Topographical representations of the “map - path” type are characterized by concreteness and gradual tracing of spatial relationships. Orientation in space based on these ideas is successive in nature; during orientation, representations of all landmarks located between the starting and ending points are reproduced and compared with perceptual data.

   Representations of the “map - overview” type are characterized by the simultaneity of mental coverage of spatial relationships inherent in a particular closed space. With orientation based on the concepts of “map - overview”, the entire set of spatial relationships is simultaneously reproduced in the form of a plan of a certain area.

   The presence of the same types of topographical representations in the blind as in the sighted once again shows that orientation in space is based not on the work of one visual analyzer, but on the active practical reflection of spatial relationships as a result of the integrative activity of all analyzer systems.