Report: Literature in Russia in the XVI, XVII, XIX, XX centuries. Russian culture of the 16th century

Chronicles:

Chronicle collection, which in the scientific literature is given the name Nikonovsky, was compiled in the late 20s of the 16th century by Metropolitan Daniil Ryazants and was a significant event in Russian medieval historiography, which had a great influence on subsequent chronicles.

Facial chronicle vault Ivan the Terrible, or the Tsar Book - a chronicle of events in world and especially Russian history, created in the 60-70s specifically for the royal library in a single copy. The word “facial” in the title of the Code means illustrated, with images “in faces”.

Consists of 10 volumes containing about 10 thousand sheets of rag paper, decorated with more than 16 thousand miniatures. Covers the period “from the creation of the world” to 1567.

A remarkable work appeared in the literature of the 16th century "Steppe Book". It contained portraits - descriptions of the great princes and metropolitans from Vladimir to Ivan IV, the book asserted the inviolability of the union of church and state.

Journalistic and historical works became widespread. "Chronograph",“The Tale of the Kingdom of Babylon”, “The Tale of the Beginning of Moscow”, these books exalted the power of the Grand Duke and affirmed the role of Russia in world history.

The language of literature of the 16th century. 7th grade.

Official literary and historical works were written during this period in an upbeat, ceremonial style. What still comes to the fore is the monumentality of forms, that pomp, decorativeness and bulky “theatricality” that was so revered by the scribes of the 16th century. - the century of “second monumentalism”.

Language of “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”

The author of the story constantly uses old book conjunctions - Ashe, as, like, and special forms. Epithets: God's gift, one table, noble prince, soulless voice. Comparisons: as if barking as if with one mouth. Phraseological combinations: serve righteously, establish a feast.

However, elements of lively colloquial speech were increasingly infused into Russian writing.

Great Russian speech serves as a life-giving source that nourishes the language of business documents in comparison with the language of business writing of ancient Rus'.

The language of business writing is represented by official business documents: petitions– petitions for appearance in court, for exemption from duties; diplomas spiritual, deeds of sale, security; codes of law - codes of laws; private correspondence: letters, personal notes, fairy tales.

The meanings of the words have changed: forehead no longer means "skull" leprosy(harm) is now just the name of the disease.

Comes into use terminological vocabulary:

Get on a horse - go on a hike

Duma - advice, agreement

to live for one - to be in union, in peace

kiss the cross - take an oath

sad person - patron, protector

Gat - Road through a swamp made of bulk earth and brushwood

murderer - murderer

only - only

more - more, better

play a mortal game - fight, fight

fiercely - firmly, steadfastly

dashing - evil, evil deed

saint - righteous, servant

supposedly - as if

vilify – scold

hawkmoth - drunkard

pouch - a bag for storing money

interpreter - translator

great – because

Grades 5-6 – heroes of 16th century literature.

"The Life of Peter and Fevronya of Murom"

In the middle of the 16th century, priest Ermolai-Erasmus wrote the lives of two semi-legendary heroes - Prince Peter and Princess Fevronya of Murom - these heroes form the basis of the Day of Love and Family Welfare, which we celebrate now in Russia.

In the 15th – 16th centuries, the first lives of holy fools were created: Procopius of Ustyug, St. Basil the Blessed, etc.

Such is the life of the Murom prince Konstantin and his sons Mikhail and Fyodor, which tell about the baptism of the Murom land - these princes are known only from their lives.

This also includes the story of Mercury of Smolensk - a young man, owner of a miracle sword, who saved Smolensk from the army of Khan Batu and ultimately sacrificed himself.

It acquired great importance in the 16th century. journalism. The journalistic works of Ivan the Terrible, Andrei Kurbsky, and Ivan Peresvetov raise the most important problems of public administration, the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects, the church and the grand ducal or royal power.

In the writings of church hierarchs (Joseph Volotsky, Nil Sorsky, Metropolitan Daniel) polemics are conducted with heretics, social vices are exposed, and disputes are held on issues of church life.

The idea of ​​regulating the circle of spiritually beneficial reading was realized to the best extent by a gigantic code created on the initiative of the Novgorod Archbishop Macarius (later Metropolitan) - “Great Menaion-Chets” - a collection of all the “holy books” that are “found” in Rus'.

In the “Russian Chronograph”, Elder Philotheus led to the idea that “old Rome” fell for sins, and “new Rome” also fell” - Constantinople, because, having agreed to a union with the Catholics (at the Council of Florence in 1439), the Greeks betrayed Orthodoxy , and the time has come for the “third Rome” - Moscow. Moscow is the last Rome, “there will never be a fourth Rome.”

Typography in Rus'.

On March 1, 1564, the “cunning masters of printing” Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets printed the first book - the Acts and Epistles of the Holy Apostles.

The pioneer printer himself did a lot of editorial work on it and designed it according to all the rules of the printing art of that time. Ivan Fedorov made rich headpieces for each section in this book, colorful vignettes at the top of the pages, and initials.

Russian literature in the 16th century:

The 16th century is the time of the final formation and strengthening of the Russian centralized state. During this period, Russian architecture and painting continued to develop, and book printing emerged. At the same time, the 16th century was a time of strict centralization of culture and literature - various chronicle collections were replaced by a single all-Russian grand-ducal (then royal) chronicle, a single collection of church and partly secular literature was created - “Great Menaions of Chetiy” (i.e. monthly volumes for reading - reading material arranged by month). Defeated at the beginning of the 16th century, the heretical movement arose again in the middle of the 16th century. - after major popular uprisings of the 40s. And again the heresy was brutally suppressed. One of the heretics of the 16th century. nobleman Matthew Bashkin made a bold conclusion from the Gospel preaching of love for one’s neighbor that no one has the right to own “Christ’s slaves”; he set all his slaves free. The heretic and slave of Theodosius Kosoy went even further, declaring that all people are equal, regardless of nationality and religion: “all people are one with God, and the Tatars, and the Germans, and other pagans.” Theodosius Kosoy escaped from prison to Lithuanian Rus', where he continued his preaching, becoming close to the most courageous Polish-Lithuanian and Western European Protestants.

Anti-feudal movements are opposed by official ideology. The formation of this ideology can be traced back to the first decades of the 16th century. Around the same time, in the early 20s. this century, two most important ideological monuments appear: “The Message on the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava and the “Message to the Astrologers” by the Pskov elder Philotheus. “Message about the Crown of Monomakh” and “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” The “Message on the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava set forth a legend that played a crucial role in the development of the official ideology of the Russian autocratic state. This is a legend about the origin of the grand-ducal dynasty ruling in Rus' from the Roman emperor - “Augustus Caesar” and about the confirmation of its dynastic rights by the “Monomakh Crown”, allegedly received by the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh from the Byzantine emperor. The foundations of this legend go back to the 15th century. and may have been associated with claims to the “royal crown” put forward in the middle of the 15th century. Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich. In 1498, Ivan III's grandson Dmitry (who was descended from the Tver princes on his mother's side) was declared co-ruler of his grandfather and crowned with the "Monomakh's cap." This is how the crown first appeared, with which Russian sovereigns subsequently began to be crowned. Probably, even then there were some legends that substantiate this wedding, but the earliest written presentation of such legends known to us is the “Message of the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava. Tver monk, appointed in the 15th century. in Constantinople, Metropolitan of All Rus', not recognized by the Moscow Grand Duke and subsequently imprisoned, Spiridon-Sava was an educated man for his time. One of the popular monuments of the 16th century was created on the basis of the “Epistle on the Crown of Monomakh”. - “The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir.” Its text was generally similar to the text of Spiridon’s “Message,” but “Genealogy of the Lithuanian princes” was highlighted in a special article, and the role assigned by Spiridon to the Tver princes was transferred to the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich and his descendants; at the end, the victory of Dmitry Donskoy over Mamai was mentioned.

In 1547, an important event took place in the history of the Russian state: the young Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned with the “Cap of Monomakh” and declared “Tsar of All Rus'”. In this regard, a special “Wedding Rite” was compiled, in the introduction to which the “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” was used. The ideas of the “Tale” were set forth in diplomatic monuments, reflected in chronicles and the “Degree Book” of the 16th century. and in "The Sovereign's Genealogy". They even penetrated into fine art: scenes from “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” are carved on the doors of the “royal seat” (the fence for the throne of Ivan IV) in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral.

What was common in all these monuments was the idea, which gradually became the unshakable basis of the official ideology, about the special role of Russia as the only Orthodox country to survive in a world that had lost true Christianity.

In 1551, a church council took place in Moscow, the resolutions of which were published in a special book consisting of the royal questions and conciliar answers to these questions; There were 100 chapters in total in this book. Hence the name of this book and the cathedral itself that published it. The Stoglavy Council approved the church cult that had developed in Rus' as unshakable and final (Stoglava’s regulations, as we will see, later played an important role during the church schism of the 17th century). At the same time, the decisions of the Stoglavy Council were directed against any reformation-heretical teachings. In a message to the “fathers” of the Stoglavy Cathedral, Ivan the Terrible called on them to defend the Christian faith “from murderous wolves and from all the machinations of the enemy.” The Council condemned the reading and distribution of “ungodly” and “heretical renounced books”, spoke out against “skomorokhs” (buffoons), “laugh-makers and arganniks and goose-makers and laughers” and against icon painters who write not “from ancient models”, but “with self-reflection” .

A number of generalizing literary events of the 16th century were associated with the official ideological policy of Ivan the Terrible during the Stoglavy Council. Such activities include the compilation of the “Stoglav” and such outstanding written monuments as the “Great Menaion of Chetiy” and “Domostroy”.

"Great Menaion of Chetia". The “Great Menaia of Chetia” (monthly readings) were compiled under the leadership of the Novgorod archbishop, later Metropolitan of All Rus', Macarius. The grandiose set he created consisted of twelve volumes - one for each month of the year. This set has come down to us in three versions - the Sophia Menaions, compiled back in the 30s - early 40s, and the Assumption and Royal Menaions of the early 50s. Each volume included the lives of all the saints whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all literature directly or indirectly related to these saints. According to Macarius, the “Great Menaia of the Four” should have included not only lives, but in general “all the books of the Four” (i.e., intended for reading), “which are found in the Russian land.” The code created by Macarius included, along with lives, the works of the Greek “fathers of the church” (patristics), church polemical literature (for example, the book of Joseph Volotsky against heretics - “The Enlightener”), church charters and even works such as “Christian topography" (description of the world) of Cosmas Indikoplov, the story "Barlaam and Joasaph", "The Tale of Babylon", etc. Thus, the "Great Menaion of Chetiy" should have covered the entire amount of monuments (except for chronicles and chronographs) that were allowed to reading in Rus'. To imagine the volume of this collection, you need to consider that each of its huge (full-sheet format) volumes contains approximately 1000 leaves. Its dimensions are so large that, although from the middle of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 20th century. A scientific publication of Menaeus was underway, but it has not yet been completed.

"Domostroy". If “Stoglav” contained the basic norms of church cult and ritual in Rus', and “Great Menaions of Chetiy” determined the reading range of a Russian person, then “Domostroy” proposed the same system of norms for internal, home life. Like other monuments of the 16th century, Domostroy was based on an earlier literary tradition. This tradition included, for example, such an outstanding monument of Kievan Rus as the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh.” In Rus', preaching collections have long existed, consisting of individual teachings and comments on issues of everyday life (“Izmaragd”, “Chrysostom”). In the 16th century a monument arose called “Domostroy” (i.e., the rules of home organization) and consisting of three parts: about the worship of the church and royal power, about the “worldly structure” (relations within the family) and about the “household structure” (household). First edition of "Domostroy"; Compiled before the middle of the 16th century, it contained (in describing everyday life) very lively scenes from Moscow life, for example, a story about bawd women embarrassing married “empresses.” The second edition of “Domostroy” dates back to the middle of the 16th century and is associated with the name of Sylvester; a priest who was part of a narrow circle of the most influential people close to the Tsar, who was later called (in the writings of A. M. Kurbsky, close to this circle) “The Chosen Rada.” This edition of Domostroy ended with a message from Sylvester to his son Anfim. In the center of Domostroy there is a separate farmstead of the 16th century, a self-contained “farmstead”. This farm is located inside the city and rather reflects the life of a wealthy city dweller rather than a landowner boyar. This is a zealous owner, a “household” person who has “household members” and “servants” - slaves or hired ones. He purchases all the basic items on the market, combining trade and craft activities with usury. He fears and honors the king and the authorities - “whoever opposes the ruler is opposed to God’s behavior.”

The creation of “Stoglava”, “Great Menya Chetiyh”, “Domostroy” was largely intended to take control of the development of culture and literature. According to the fair remark of the famous literary historian N.S. Tikhonravov, these events “tell us loudly about the arousal of protective principles in the mental movement of Muscovite Rus' in the 16th century.” Control over culture and literature took on a particularly strict character during the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible, established in 1564. The Tsar, in the words of his opponent Kurbsky, “closed his kingdom like a hellish stronghold,” preventing the penetration of literature from the West, where Renaissance and Reformation. Under circumstances that are not entirely clear, book printing, which began in the 50s and 60s, ceased. XVI century; Russian pioneer Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Western Rus' (Ostrog, then Lvov).

Russian literature in the 17th century (Simeon of Polotsk):

Stories about the “Time of Troubles” (“New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, “Tale of 1606”, “Crying about the Captivity and the Final Ruin of the Moscow State”, “The Legend” of Abraham Palitsyn, stories about Prince M. V. Skopin -Shuisky, “Message from a nobleman to a nobleman”, “Annalistic book” attributed to Prince I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, etc.).

The life of Uliana Lazarevskaya, written by her son Druzhina Osorin.

“The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks” and its inherent epic motifs. The poetic “Tale of Woe and Misfortune” is one of the pinnacle works of ancient Russian literature. Methods of typification in the story.

Russian historical and everyday stories (mainly from the second half of the 17th century).

The story of Savva Grudtsyn as the beginning of a Russian novel.

Stories about the origin of tobacco, about the demon-possessed Solomonia, about the beginning of Moscow, about the founding of the Tver Otroch Monastery.

The problem of Russian Baroque.

Formation of “secular” fiction of a new type.

Poetry in the 17th century.

The works of Ivan Khvorostinin, Savvaty and the poets of the “mandatory school”.

Pre-syllabic verses.

Syllabic poetry (poems by Simeon Polotsk, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin.).

Simeon of Polotsk(1629 - 1680) - Belarusian, graduate of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, hieromonk, came to Moscow in 1664, became the tutor of princes Alexei and Fedor.

His work includes poetry, drama, sermons and treatises, book publishing (Upper Printing House).

Poem “Russian Eagle” (1667). "The Rod of Government" (1667). Manuscript collection “Rhymelogion” (1659 - 1680). “The Rhyming Psalter” (1680). “Vertograd of many colors” (1676 - 1680), its genre synthetism.

The wealth of Simeon's literary technique (rhythmic quests, synthesis of words and images, palindromons, figured verses, “crayfish”, acrostics, etc.). The question of baroque in Russian literature of the second half of the 17th century.

The beginning of Russian theater and Russian drama. Theater at the court of Alexei Mikhailovich. “The Artaxerxes Act” and other early plays.

Archpriest Avvakum (1620 - 1682) - the son of priest Peter, from 1652 served in Moscow in the Kazan Cathedral, here he then leads the Old Believer opposition to the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, was exiled with his family to Tobolsk, then to Dauria, returned to Moscow and favorably received by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, arrested again; after many years of exile, together with three supporters, he was burned in Pustozersk “for great blasphemies against the royal house” (already under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich).

Avvakum as a writer. “The Life” of Avvakum, its genre and the bright stylistic individuality of the author. “The Book of Conversations”, “The Book of Reproofs” and other works of his.

The artistic innovation of Avvakum the prose writer, his psychologism.

Old Believer literature of the 17th century.

Literature of an emerging nation (XVII century).

1. Literature of the first half of the 17th century. (until the 60s)

a) Journalism of the Time of Troubles and historical and journalistic narratives of the beginning. XVII century (“The Tale of 1606”, “The New Tale of the Glorious Kingdom of Russia”, “The Lament for the Captivity and Final Ruin of the Moscow State”, “The Chronicle Book” by Semyon Shakhovsky, “The Legend” by Abraham Palitsin). The reasons for the emergence of this genre. Theme and orientation (anti-boyar and noble). Journalistic and historical-fictional beginnings.

b) The evolution of the hagiographic genre (“The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya” by Druzhina Osorin). Historical and everyday life in the story-life. Echoes of life literature.

c) Features of historical narration in the literature of the first half. XVII century and its evolution to the second sex. century. (“The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks”). Collective hero. Folklore elements. “The Tale of the Beginning of Moscow”, “The Tale of the Founding of the Tver Youth Monastery”. The nature of fictionalization. There is love in them.

2. Literature of the second half of the 17th century.

a) Everyday stories as a result of the development of everyday elements in the narrative of the 15th – 16th centuries. (“The Tale of Misfortune-Grief”, “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”). Plots as the embodiment of new genre features of everyday stories. Conflicts. Characters. The relationship between everyday life and historical material. Fantastic and adventurous everyday beginnings.

b) The development of democratic satire and its connection with satirical elements in the literature of previous eras (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Kalyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Hawkmoth”, etc.). Objects of ridicule (feudal court, church, social inequality, etc.). techniques for creating comics.

c) Schism as a religious-social phenomenon and its reflection in literature. "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum." Evolution of the genre. Main themes and images. Household sketches, historical and ethnographic material. Journalistic beginning. Literary significance of the monument.

d) Baroque, its essence. Aesthetic principles. The significance of the Baroque for the development of literature in the 18th century. The work of Simeon of Polotsk. Poetry. Court theater and school drama.

The Moscow Kremlin is a symbol of Russian statehood, one of the largest architectural ensembles in the world, the richest treasury of historical relics, cultural and artistic monuments. It is located on Borovitsky Hill, where at the turn of the 11th - 12th centuries a Slavic settlement arose, which gave rise to the city. By the end of the 15th century, the Kremlin became the seat of state and spiritual power of the country. In the 18th - 19th centuries, when the capital was moved to St. Petersburg, Moscow retained its importance as the capital city. In 1918, it again became the capital, and the Kremlin - the place of work of the highest authorities. Today the Moscow Kremlin houses the residence of the President of the Russian Federation. The architectural and urban planning ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin has evolved over the centuries. By the end of the 17th century, the Kremlin was a whole city with a developed layout, a complex system of squares, streets, alleys, horse and embankment gardens. In the 18th - 19th centuries, the Kremlin was significantly rebuilt. Many medieval architectural complexes were replaced by monumental palaces and administrative buildings. They significantly changed the appearance of the ancient Kremlin, but it retained its uniqueness and national identity. On the territory of the Moscow Kremlin there are architectural monuments of the 14th-20th centuries, gardens and public gardens. They make up the ensembles of Cathedral, Ivanovskaya, Senate, Palace and Trinity squares, as well as Spasskaya, Borovitskaya and Palace streets. In the 1990s, the architectural ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, its treasures, Red Square and the Alexander Garden were included in the List of Especially Valuable Objects of Russia, as well as in the UNESCO List of World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The museums located on the territory of the Kremlin were transformed into the State Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve of the Moscow Kremlin. The unique museum complex of the Moscow Kremlin includes the Armory Chamber, the Assumption, Archangel, and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Church of the Deposition of the Robe, the Patriarchal Chambers with the Church of the Twelve Apostles, the ensemble of the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, and collections of artillery pieces and bells.

Russian literature XIX century:

At the beginning of the 19th century. a sentimental direction emerges. Its most prominent representatives: Karamzin ("Letters of a Russian Traveler", "Tales"), Dmitriev and Ozerov. The resulting struggle between the new literary style (Karamzin) and the old (Shishkov) ends in the victory of the innovators. Sentimentalism is being replaced by the romantic direction (Zhukovsky is a translator of Schiller, Uhland, Seydlitz and English poets). The national principle finds expression in Krylov's fables. The father of new Russian literature was Pushkin, who in all types of literature: lyric poetry, drama, epic poetry and prose, created examples that in beauty and elegant simplicity of form and sincerity of feeling are not inferior to the greatest works of world literature. At the same time, A. Griboedov acts with him, who gave the command. "Woe from Wit" is a broad satirical picture of morals. N. Gogol, developing the real direction of Pushkin, depicts the dark sides of Russian life with high artistry and humor. Pushkin's successor in graceful poetry is Lermontov.

Starting with Pushkin and Gogol, literature becomes an organ of public consciousness. The ideas of the German philosophers Hegel, Schelling and others (the circle of Stankevich, Granovsky, Belinsky, etc.) appeared in Russia in the 1830s and 40s. On the basis of these ideas, two main currents of Russian social thought emerged: Slavophilism and Westernism. Under the influence of the Slavophiles, interest in native antiquity, folk customs, and folk art arises (the works of S. Solovyov, Kavelin, Buslaev, Afanasyev, Sreznevsky, Zabelin, Kostomarov, Dahl, Pypin, etc.). At the same time, political and social theories of the West penetrate into literature (Herzen).

Since the 1850s, novels and stories have become widespread, reflecting the life of Russian society and all phases of the development of its thought (works by Turgenev, Goncharov, Pisemsky; L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Pomyalovsky, Grigorovich, Boborykin, Leskov, Albov, Barantsevich, Nemirovich-Danchenko, Mamin, Melshin, Novodvorsky, Salov, Garshin, Korolenko, Chekhov, Garin, Gorky, L. Andreev, Kuprin, Veresaev, Chirikov, etc.). Shchedrin-Saltykov, in his satirical essays, castigated the reactionary and selfish tendencies that arose in Russian society and interfered with the implementation of reforms of the 1860s. Writers of the populist movement: Reshetnikov, Levitov, Ch. Uspensky, Zlatovratsky, Ertel, Naumov. Poets after Lermontov: movements of pure art - Maikov, Polonsky, Fet, Tyutchev, Alexei Tolstoy, Apukhtin, Fofanov; public and folk directions: Koltsov, Nikitin, Nekrasov, Surikov. Zhemchuzhnikov, Pleshcheev, Nadson. Playwrights: Sukhovo-Kobylin, Ostrovsky, Potekhin, Dyachenko, Soloviev, Krylov, Shpazhinsky, Sumbatov. Nevezhin, Karpov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, Tikhonov, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky, Andreev.

At the end of the 19th and 20th centuries. Symbolist poets are put forward: Balmont, Merezhkovsky, Gippius, Bryusov and many others. etc. Representatives of literary criticism were Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev, Chernyshevsky, Mikhailovsky and many others. etc.

Russian literature of the 20th century:

In the late 10s and 20s of the 20th century, literary scholars sometimes counted the latest Russian literature from 1881 - the year of Dostoevsky’s death and the assassination of Alexander II. It is now generally accepted that the “20th century” came into literature in the early 90s of the 19th century., A.P. Chekhov is a transitional figure, unlike L.N. Tolstoy, he not only biographically, but also creatively belongs to both the 19th and 20th centuries. It is thanks to Chekhov that the epic genres - the novel, the story; and the story - began to be differentiated in the modern understanding as large, medium and small genres. Before that, they were differentiated virtually regardless of length by the degree of “literaryness”: a story was considered less “literary” than a novel, a short story was in this sense even freer, and on the verge of non-fiction was an essay, i.e. "sketch". Chekhov became a classic of the small genre and thus placed it on the same hierarchical level with the novel (which is why volume became the main distinguishing feature). His experience as a narrator did not pass without a trace. He was also a reformer of drama and theater. However, his last play, “The Cherry Orchard” (1903), written later than Gorky’s “At the Lower Depths” (1902), seems in comparison with Gorky’s to be the end of the traditions of the 19th century, and not the entry into a new century.

Symbolists and subsequent modernist movements. Gorky, Andreev, even the nostalgic Bunin are already indisputably the 20th century, although some of them began in the calendar 19th.

Nevertheless, in Soviet times, the “Silver Age” was defined purely chronologically as the literature of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, and Soviet literature, which supposedly arose immediately after the revolution of 1917, was considered fundamentally new on the basis of an ideological principle. Independently-minded people understood that the “old” It was already over with the World War that 1914 was a milestone - A. Akhmatova in “Poem without a Hero”, where the main action takes place in 1913, wrote: “And along the legendary embankment / The non-calendar century was approaching - / The Real Twentieth Century.” However, official Soviet science divided not only the history of Russian literature, but also the civil history of the whole world along one milestone - 1917.

A. Blok, N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, V. Khodasevich, M. Voloshin, V. Mayakovsky, S. Yesenin, seemingly hidden M. Tsvetaeva and B. Pasternak. The devastation of the first post-revolutionary years almost completely destroyed fiction (V. Korolenko, M. Gorky, I. Bunin wrote journalistic works immediately after the revolution) and drama, and one of the first novels after the hard times of the civil war was “We” (1920) by E. Zamyatin - turned out to be the first major, “delayed” work, which opened a whole branch of Russian literature, as if it did not have its own literary process: such works over time, sooner or later, were included in the literary process abroad or in the metropolis. Emigrant literature was finally formed in 1922-1923; in 1923, L. Trotsky clearly gloated prematurely, seeing in it a “round zero,” however, stipulating that “ours has not yet given anything that would be adequate to the era.”

Thus, literature from the end of 1917 (the first “swallows” - “Eat pineapples, chew hazel grouse, / your last day is coming, bourgeois” and “Our March” by Mayakovsky) to the beginning of the 20s is a small, but very important transition period. From the literary point of view, as emigrant criticism correctly noted, this was a direct continuation of pre-revolutionary literature. But qualitatively new features matured in it, and a great split into three branches of literature occurred in the early 20s.

Finally, among the prose writers and poets who came to literature after the revolution, there were those who, with any reservations, can hardly be called Soviet: M. Bulgakov, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Vaginov, L. Dobychin, S. Krzhizhanovsky, Oberiuts, etc., and Since the 60s, especially after the appearance of A. Solzhenitsyn in literature, the criterion of “Sovietness” has objectively lost more and more meaning.

Divided into three parts, two explicit and one implicit (at least for the Soviet reader), Russian literature of the 20th century still remained largely unified, although the Russians abroad knew both their own and the Soviet, and from a certain time many works were detained in their homeland literature, the Soviet general reader until the end of the 80s was tightly isolated from the enormous national cultural riches of his century (as well as from many riches of world artistic culture

An important difference between the literature of the 20th century and the literature of the previous century is that in the 19th century there were quite a few poets and prose writers of the second rank (Batyushkov, Baratynsky, A.K. Tolstoy, Pisemsky, Garshin); after the first rank, the third rank immediately followed (Delvig , Yazykov, Veltman, Lazhechnikov, Mei, Sleptsov, etc.), and in the 20th century (not only at the turn of the 19th and 20th) the second row is so numerous and strong that sometimes it is not easy to distinguish it from the first: in poetry it is N Gumilyov (a number of poems by the late Gumilev - a real classic), M. Kuzmin, M. Voloshin, N. Klyuev, V. Khodasevich, N. Zabolotsky, late G. Ivanov, N. Rubtsov; in narrative prose - E. Zamyatin, B. Zaitsev, A. Remizov, M. Prishvin, L. Leonov, Boris Pilnyak, I. Babel, Y. Tynyanov, S. Klychkov, A. Green, K. Vaginov, L. Dobychin , M. Osorgin, G. Gazdanov, later, perhaps, Yu. Dombrovsky, some writers of the 70-80s. Andrei Bely had a huge influence on the early (and best) post-October literature, although his own best poems and the highest achievement of symbolist prose, the novel Petersburg, appeared before the revolution. Sometimes a prose writer or poet entered into great literature “with only one thing, one line... (here I recall Isakovsky and, say, his great poem “Enemies burned his native hut...”, Olesha with his “Envy,” Erdman with “ Mandate" and "Suicide", Simonov with "Wait for Me", etc., etc.)". Some authors, like Vs. Ivanov, K. Fedin, A. Fadeev or N. Tikhonov, V. Kazin were highly regarded by critics, sometimes they showed hopes with good reason, but then they could not justify them. In the 20th century, a true classic of children's literature, interesting “science” fiction, was born.

The achievements of literature of the 20th century could have been much higher if it had had normal development conditions, or at least the same as in the previous century. But it would be unscientific to attribute all the troubles to the ill will of Bolshevik politicians and the weak character of many writers. The Bolsheviks considered themselves entitled to sacrifice millions of human lives, since many of them, especially ordinary people, began with self-sacrifice, and sacrificed themselves later. But Lenin, Trotsky, and even Stalin, with all his cynicism, were probably sure that history would sanctify their great crimes in the name of the bright future of humanity with reverent gratitude from posterity, at least for the “main thing” in their deeds.

So, from fundamental differences in the concept of personality, the literature of the mother country and abroad came to their merger with the preservation of opposite, but completely different, approaches. Another divergence was in attitudes towards Western culture. In the Soviet Union it was disdainful and hostile, which also affected the attitude towards its writers (the persecution of B. Pasternak in 1958 for awarding him the Nobel Prize by his “enemies” is indicative). Since the 60s, even a little earlier, gradual changes began to occur here. And yet, the interaction between Russian and Western cultures was much more intense in emigration. Russian foreign literature was not only more influenced than Soviet literature by the literatures of Europe and America - these latter acquired a number of very significant writers of Russian origin, the largest of whom was V. Nabokov.

But in the Soviet Union there was intensive interaction between the literatures of the republics that were part of it, although in the first decades there was mainly a one-sided influence of Russian literature on others, especially eastern ones - the influence was not always organic, artificial, mechanical, although voluntarily accepted as the norm: in these literatures should have had, if not their own Gorky, then at least their own Mayakovsky and Sholokhov, and almost the majority of the eastern Sholokhovs had a local grandfather, Shchukar, in a skullcap. All this was far removed from the cultural traditions of this or that people, sometimes very ancient and deep. But since the 60s, Soviet literature has become truly multinational, the Russian reader perceives as completely their own writers the Kyrgyz Ch. Aitmatov, the Belarusian V. Bykov, the Georgian N. Dumbadze, the Abkhaz F. Iskander, the Azerbaijanis Maksud and Rustam Ibragimbekov, the Russian Korean A.N. . Kim, etc. Many of them switch to Russian, or become bilingual writers, or immediately begin to write in Russian, retaining essential elements of the national worldview in their work. Among them are representatives of the smallest peoples of the North: Nivkh V. Sangi, Chukchi Y. Rytkheu and others. These national Russian-speaking writers are inseparable from Russian literature proper, although they do not belong entirely to it. Another category of writers is Russian writers of non-indigenous nationalities. This is for example. Bulat Okudzhava. Writers of Jewish nationality made a very large contribution to Russian literature of the 20th century, and from the very beginning. Among them are the classics of Russian literature, who did more for it than was done by any other writers for Jewish literature. Just because there are people who are dissatisfied with this, the fact will not cease to be a fact.

(No ratings yet)

The literature of the 16th century belongs to the Renaissance, so all works are imbued with this period. It can sometimes be difficult for a modern ordinary reader to read such works, because they often have a deep meaning, clearly adhere to certain rules, and also tell about events that took place then in different countries. And the language and manner of narration are far from modern.

The Renaissance was widespread, but at the same time, each country had its own characteristics and nuances. The term itself means “renewal,” namely, the appeal of all creative people to antiquity, imitating its ideals. The same applies to books from the 16th century.

In the literature of the 16th century, one can trace how writers moved away from the influence of the church, in particular from the imposition of slavish obedience. A person is ideal in both soul and body. The authors also create tragic stories, such as “Romeo and Juliet,” where they pit families against each other, or create sublime feelings and intense passions. The philosophical field and dramaturgy also began to develop.

In France, literature was very developed. Writers studied with Italian masters. The authors had a realistic view of the world and covered a broad horizon of knowledge, so the works are full of useful information and ideas.

Changes also occurred in Russian literature of that period. Chronicle writing remained the most widespread area, but some nuances appeared here. Thus, chroniclers now no longer simply described all the events that took place, but also interpreted them and gave characteristics to all historical figures. There were also works in which the topic of morality was raised.

We have compiled a list of works from the 16th century for you. These are the best works of the authors, which touched on various everyday problems, problems of human appearance, described wars, conflicts, and also revealed the character of many historical figures.

The 16th century was the time of the final formation and strengthening of the Russian centralized state. During this period, Russian architecture and painting continued to develop, and book printing emerged. At the same time, the 16th century was a time of strict centralization of culture and literature - various chronicle collections were replaced by a single all-Russian grand-ducal (then royal) chronicle, a single collection of church and partly secular literature was created - “Great Menaions of Chetiy” (i.e. monthly volumes for readings - reading material arranged by month). Defeated at the beginning of the 16th century, the heretical movement arose again in the middle of the 16th century. - after major popular uprisings of the 40s. And again the heresy was brutally suppressed. One of the heretics of the 16th century. nobleman Matthew Bashkin made a bold conclusion from the Gospel preaching of love for one’s neighbor that no one has the right to own “Christ’s slaves”; he set all his slaves free. The heretic and slave of Theodosius Kosoy went even further, declaring that all people are equal, regardless of nationality and religion: “all people are one with God, and the Tatars, and the Germans, and other pagans.” Theodosius Kosoy escaped from prison to Lithuanian Rus', where he continued his preaching, becoming close to the most courageous Polish-Lithuanian and Western European Protestants.

Anti-feudal movements are opposed by official ideology. The formation of this ideology can be traced back to the first decades of the 16th century. Around the same time, in the early 20s. this century, two most important ideological monuments appear: “The Message on the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava and the “Message to the Astrologers” by the Pskov elder Philotheus. “Message about the Crown of Monomakh” and “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” The “Message on the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava set forth a legend that played a crucial role in the development of the official ideology of the Russian autocratic state. This is a legend about the origin of the grand-ducal dynasty ruling in Rus' from the Roman emperor - “Augustus Caesar” and about the confirmation of its dynastic rights by the “Monomakh Crown”, allegedly received by the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh from the Byzantine emperor. The foundations of this legend go back to the 15th century. and may have been associated with claims to the “royal crown” put forward in the middle of the 15th century. Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich. In 1498, Ivan III's grandson Dmitry (who was descended from the Tver princes on his mother's side) was declared co-ruler of his grandfather and crowned with the "Monomakh's cap." This is how the crown first appeared, with which Russian sovereigns subsequently began to be crowned. Probably, even then there were some legends that substantiate this wedding, but the earliest written presentation of such legends known to us is the “Message of the Crown of Monomakh” by Spiridon-Sava. Tver monk, appointed in the 15th century. in Constantinople, Metropolitan of All Rus', not recognized by the Moscow Grand Duke and subsequently imprisoned, Spiridon-Sava was an educated man for his time. One of the popular monuments of the 16th century was created on the basis of the “Epistle on the Crown of Monomakh”. - “The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir.” Its text was generally similar to the text of Spiridon’s “Message,” but “Genealogy of the Lithuanian princes” was highlighted in a special article, and the role assigned by Spiridon to the Tver princes was transferred to the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich and his descendants; at the end, the victory of Dmitry Donskoy over Mamai was mentioned.

In 1547, an important event took place in the history of the Russian state: the young Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned with the “Cap of Monomakh” and declared “Tsar of All Rus'”. In this regard, a special “Wedding Rite” was compiled, in the introduction to which the “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” was used. The ideas of the “Tale” were set forth in diplomatic monuments, reflected in chronicles and the “Degree Book” of the 16th century. and in "The Sovereign's Genealogy". They even penetrated into fine art: scenes from “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” are carved on the doors of the “royal seat” (the fence for the throne of Ivan IV) in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral.

What was common in all these monuments was the idea, which gradually became the unshakable basis of the official ideology, about the special role of Russia as the only Orthodox country to survive in a world that had lost true Christianity.

In 1551, a church council took place in Moscow, the resolutions of which were published in a special book consisting of the royal questions and conciliar answers to these questions; There were 100 chapters in total in this book. Hence the name of this book and the cathedral itself that published it. The Stoglavy Council approved the church cult that had developed in Rus' as unshakable and final (Stoglava’s regulations, as we will see, later played an important role during the church schism of the 17th century). At the same time, the decisions of the Stoglavy Council were directed against any reformation-heretical teachings. In a message to the “fathers” of the Stoglavy Cathedral, Ivan the Terrible called on them to defend the Christian faith “from murderous wolves and from all the machinations of the enemy.” The Council condemned the reading and distribution of “ungodly” and “heretical renounced books”, spoke out against “skomorokhs” (buffoons), “laugh-makers and arganniks and goose-makers and laughers” and against icon painters who write not “from ancient models”, but “with self-reflection” .

A number of generalizing literary events of the 16th century were associated with the official ideological policy of Ivan the Terrible during the Stoglavy Council. Such activities include the compilation of the “Stoglav” and such outstanding written monuments as the “Great Menaion of Chetiy” and “Domostroy”.

"Great Menaion of Chetia". The “Great Menaia of Chetia” (monthly readings) were compiled under the leadership of the Novgorod archbishop, later Metropolitan of All Rus', Macarius. The grandiose set he created consisted of twelve volumes - one for each month of the year. This set has come down to us in three versions - the Sophia Menaions, compiled back in the 30s and early 40s, and the Assumption and Royal Menaions of the early 50s. Each volume included the lives of all the saints whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all literature directly or indirectly related to these saints. According to Macarius, the “Great Menaia of the Four” should have included not only lives, but in general “all the books of the Four” (i.e., intended for reading), “which are found in the Russian land.” The code created by Macarius included, along with lives, the works of the Greek “fathers of the church” (patristics), church polemical literature (for example, the book of Joseph Volotsky against heretics - “The Enlightener”), church charters and even works such as “ Christian topography" (description of the world) by Cosmas of Indikoplov, the story "Barlaam and Joasaph", "The Tale of Babylon", etc. Thus, the "Great Menaions of Chetiy" were supposed to cover the entire amount of monuments (except for chronicles and chronographs) that were allowed to reading in Rus'. To imagine the volume of this collection, you need to consider that each of its huge (full-sheet format) volumes contains approximately 1000 leaves. Its dimensions are so large that, although from the middle of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 20th century. A scientific publication of Menaeus was underway, but it has not yet been completed.

"Domostroy". If “Stoglav” contained the basic norms of church cult and ritual in Rus', and “Great Menaions of Chetiy” determined the reading range of a Russian person, then “Domostroy” proposed the same system of norms for internal, home life. Like other monuments of the 16th century, Domostroy was based on an earlier literary tradition. This tradition included, for example, such an outstanding monument of Kievan Rus as the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh.” In Rus', preaching collections have long existed, consisting of individual teachings and comments on issues of everyday life (“Izmaragd”, “Chrysostom”). In the 16th century a monument arose called “Domostroy” (i.e., the rules of home organization) and consisting of three parts: about the worship of the church and royal power, about the “worldly structure” (relations within the family) and about the “household structure” (household). First edition of "Domostroy"; Compiled before the middle of the 16th century, it contained (in describing everyday life) very lively scenes from Moscow life, for example, a story about bawd women embarrassing married “empresses.” The second edition of “Domostroy” dates back to the middle of the 16th century and is associated with the name of Sylvester; a priest who was part of a narrow circle of the most influential people close to the Tsar, who was later called (in the writings of A. M. Kurbsky, close to this circle) “The Chosen Rada.” This edition of Domostroy ended with a message from Sylvester to his son Anfim. In the center of “Domostroy” there is a separate farmstead of the 16th century, a self-contained “farmstead”. This farm is located inside the city and rather reflects the life of a wealthy city dweller rather than a landowner boyar. This is a zealous owner, a “household” person who has “household members” and “servants” - slaves or hired ones. He purchases all the basic items on the market, combining trade and craft activities with usury. He fears and honors the king and the authorities - “whoever opposes the ruler is opposed to God’s behavior.”

The creation of “Stoglava”, “Great Menya Chetiyh”, “Domostroy” was largely intended to take control of the development of culture and literature. According to the fair remark of the famous literary historian N.S. Tikhonravov, these events “tell us loudly about the arousal of protective principles in the mental movement of Muscovite Rus' in the 16th century.” Control over culture and literature took on a particularly strict character during the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible, established in 1564. The Tsar, in the words of his opponent Kurbsky, “closed his kingdom like a hellish stronghold,” preventing the penetration of literature from the West, where Renaissance and Reformation. Under not entirely clear circumstances, book printing, which began in the 50s and 60s, ceased. XVI century; Russian pioneer Ivan Fedorov was forced to move to Western Rus' (Ostrog, then Lvov).

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:

know

• the main monuments of Russian literature of the 16th century;
• the main genres and monuments of ancient Russian literature of the 16th century;
• features of development and main monuments of Russian architecture of the 16th century;
• features of the development and main monuments of ancient Russian fine and decorative arts of the 16th century;

be able to

• determine after reading the genre of a monument of ancient Russian literature;
• distinguish regional features of architectural and icon painting schools and traditions;
• identify the basic techniques of decorative and applied art based on illustrative material;

own

• methods of searching for information in library and electronic resources on the period under study and the issues being studied;
• ideas about the content of the concepts “culture” and “art” in relation to Russia in the 16th century.

Key terms and concepts: literature, chronicle, lives, chronicle vaults, monumental historical works, Facial chronicle vault, book printing, icon painting, fresco, decorative and applied arts, tented temple, fortifications, cultural influence.

Key names: Maxim the Greek, Ivan Peresvetov, Andrei Kurbsky, Spiridon-Sava, monk Philotheus, Metropolitan Daniel, Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan Fedorov, Peter Mstislavets, Metropolitan Afanasy, Sylvester, I.M. Viskovaty, Aleviz Novy, Pietro Solari, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov.

Literature. Typography

In the 16th century Russia was experiencing, on the one hand, a rapprochement with the world of Western Europe, and on the other, the final formation of a centralized state in the form that was called the Muscovite Kingdom.

These two trends were largely mutually exclusive. The influence of Western European culture implied liberation from medieval norms, including in written culture. The consequence of this was the emergence of new genres in literature, or rather the destruction of medieval genres. Publicism and publicists, dissent and a kind of medieval dissidence appeared. At the same time, there was a process of unification of all aspects of the country’s cultural life, and a single culture of the Russian kingdom was forged. Therefore, in Russian literature of the 16th century. There are so many different phenomena and trends that turn out to be united and even woven into a single ball.

Controversies affected many aspects of culture. The desire for unification of worship explains the invitation to Russia in 1516 of the learned Greek monk Maxim the Greek, who was supposed to check the correctness of translations of Russian liturgical texts from Greek. The check led to a conflict: a comparison of Russian texts with Greek revealed many translation errors, but it turned out to be impossible for the church to admit this.

Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Trivolis), educated in Renaissance Italy, united around himself intellectual freethinkers in Moscow, came out with a series of polemical works aimed at defending Orthodoxy, as well as against the inertia and ignorance of individual Russian church hierarchs and theologians. As a result, he was accused of heresy and sentenced to many years in prison. The literary heritage of Maxim the Greek in Russia is represented not only by translations, but also by numerous polemical works in which the learned monk expressed his views on the role of the church in society, on state building, etc. He is considered one of the most original Russian philosophers of the 16th century.

Literature in the 16th century. often turned out to be a field of controversy. Thus, the serviceman Ivan Peresvetov, who wrote the “Small” and “Big” petitions addressed to Ivan the Terrible, outlined in them in an allegorical form a project for the transformation of the Russian state. In the 1560s Between the boyar Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky, who fled to Lithuania, and Tsar Ivan the Terrible, an exchange of messages took place, in which the Tsar accused the fleeing boyar of treason, and Kurbsky, in turn, accused the Russian Tsar of tyranny.

Journalism also served the purposes of state ideology. The former Lithuanian Metropolitan Spiridon-Sava, who at the end of his long life was imprisoned in the Ferapontov Monastery, wrote in the 1510s. "Message about Monomakh's Crown." Here he outlined the legends about the origin of the Rurikovichs from the brother of the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus and about the receipt of the imperial regalia of Augustus by the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh from his maternal grandfather, the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. Later, these legends were included in a narrative cycle called “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.”

For the 16th century in the field of hagiography, the central figure is Metropolitan Macarius, who occupied the metropolitan throne in 1542–1563. The “Great Menaions of Chetia” compiled on his initiative included dozens of newly created lives. The canonization of the most revered saint in the era of Macarius became a very real matter, which led to the emergence local schools of hagiography. The most famous became Pskov school, and, perhaps, the most prolific hagiographer of the 16th century. the Pskov monk Vasily-Varlaam should be recognized. He wrote the lives of Euphrosynus of Pskov, princes Vsevolod-Gabriel of Pskov, Alexander Nevsky (editor), and others. The creative technique of Vasily-Varlaam is characterized by an abundance of rhetoric with little information content in the narrative. This style, characterized in the research literature as "weaving words", was characteristic not only of Vasily-Varlaam alone, but also of other scribes of the era of Metropolitan Macarius and was subsequently perceived as a model. The Lives of the Suzdal saints Archimandrite Euthymius, Bishop Theodore, Princess Euphrosyne were written by the monk of the Suzdal Spaso-Evfimiev Monastery Gregory. Vladimir edition "The Lives of Alexander Nevsky" - by the monk of the Vladimir Nativity Monastery Mikhail.

Sometimes the lives of the Makarsva era reflected local traditions and legends. So the Murom legend about the princely couple of the beginning of the 13th century. reflected in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” written by a professional scribe in the mid-16th century. Lev Philologist. In its content, this work has little in common with the life. It has two parts. The first tells about Peter, the younger brother of the Murom prince, who entered into single combat with a were-snake, defending the honor of his brother’s wife. Before his death, the serpent sprinkled Peter with his poisoned blood, causing the prince’s body to become covered with incurable ulcers. In the second part of the story, the main character is the wise peasant girl Fevronia (and her wisdom is clearly not Christian, but pagan). She healed Peter of his illness and became his wife, although he had to lose his princely title because of this. It is characteristic that after the canonization of Peter and Fevronia, this story takes on the function of a hagiography.

In order to unify worship on the territory of the Russian state in the 1550s. printing appeared. For a long time they published almost exclusively liturgical literature. This made it possible to achieve unity in liturgical texts, which was impossible when they were handwritten, during which discrepancies were inevitable.

Printing appeared, apparently, in Moscow. Judging by the terminology of printing, established in Russia in the 16th–17th centuries, and some later evidence, the teachers of the first Russian printers were Italians. So, the printer was called teredorshchik(from Italian. tiratore), and the dyer - warrior(from battitore) etc. Currently, several are known seven days a week(i.e. without indicating the place and year of publication) or anonymous publications, which on paper date back to the mid-16th century. They are determined by the width of the font. These are the narrow-font Gospel (c. 1553-1554), the Lenten Triodion (c. 1555-1556) and the colored Triodion (c. 1556-1557), the medium-font Gospel (c. 1558-1559) and the Psalter (c. 1559-1560), broad-type Gospel (c. 1563–1564) and Psalter (c. 1564–1565). Already in the first Moscow editions, two-color printing was used (titles and initials were printed in red, and the main text in black), which was preserved in the subsequent practice of early printed books.

The first book with imprint published in Russia is “The Apostle,” which was printed in Moscow with the blessing of Metropolitan Athanasius by the deacon of the Kremlin Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky, Ivan Fedorov, and his assistant Peter Mstislavets. In 1565 they published two editions of the Book of Hours, then left Russia. Ivan Fedorov carried out subsequent publications in Zabludov (1569 - Doctrinal Gospel, 1569–1570 - Psalter), in Lvov (1574 - "Apostle" and "Grammar") and in Ostrog (1578 - "Primer", 1580 - Bible). Peter Mstislavets first worked together with Ivan Fedorov in Zabludov, and then moved to Vilna, where, at the expense of the brothers Luka and Kuzma Mamonich, he published three publications (the Gospel, the Psalter and the Book of Hours).

After the departure of Ivan Fedorov, by order of the Tsar, a Printing Yard was built on Nikolskaya Street in Moscow, where Fedorov’s student Andronik Nevezha began publishing books. It is believed that he was the brother of Peter Mstislavets. In 1568, A. T. Nevezha, together with Nikifor Tarasyev, published the Psalter. In 1571, the Printing House burned down during the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, and the printing house of A. T. Nevezha from Moscow moved to the oprichnina capital of Ivan the Terrible - Alexandrov Sloboda, where the Psalter (1577) and the Book of Hours (between 1577 and 1580) were published. .

After this, nothing is known reliably about the activities of the printing house. The printing house in Moscow was resumed only in 1587. A. T. Nevezha published there the Lenten Triodion (1589) and the Colored Triodion (1591), the Octoechos (1594), and the Apostle (1597). Beginning with the publication of the Book of Hours (1598), Ivan Nevezhin worked with his father, who eventually became an independent publisher and published books at the Moscow Printing Yard.

In the 16th century so-called generalizing historical and literary enterprises appeared - works that represent a combination of information from different sources into a single body of information. In addition to the “Great Minea of ​​the Fourth”, these include the Russian Chronograph, the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles, the Degree Book, the Front Chronicle and the Domostroy.

The Russian Chronograph, or Chronograph of the 1512 edition, is an attempt to fit Russian history into the context of universal history. Before that, compilations were created based on Byzantine chronicler with the addition of Russian chronicles. In the Russian chronograph, compiled by the scribes of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, this idea is carried out consistently. As a result, a unified and harmonious presentation of world history from the Creation of the world to the fall of Constantinople in 1553 appeared. Russia took a prominent and worthy place in it.

Nikon Chronicle compiled in the 1520s. also in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery with the direct participation of Metropolitan Daniel, who himself was an outstanding writer of his time. Resurrection Chronicle dates back to a later time, to the 1530–1540s, and was completed in 1541–1542. under Metropolitan Joasaph. These chronicles, unrelated to one another, combined information from different chronicle traditions. The result was a kind of historical encyclopedia, where you can find a relatively complete set of news about Russian history from ancient times to the 16th century. The Nikon Chronicle is characterized by a more detailed presentation of events with an abundance of fiction, resorting to which the scribe of the 16th century. tried to make my narrative more consistent and consistent. The text of the Resurrection Chronicle is largely compilative.

Created in 1563–1564. The degree book is a combination of two genres - chronicles And lives. The history of Russia is represented in it by the biographies of princes and metropolitans. The author of the Degree Book, Metropolitan Athanasius (successor of Metropolitan Macarius), also came up with a very original concept for his work. He likened Russian history to a ladder leading the Russian people from the darkness of paganism to God (hence the name of the monument: “degree” means “step”). The steps of the ladder are generations of Russian princes of the Rurik dynasty, starting with Prince Vladimir, who baptized Rus', and ending with his descendant in the 17th generation, Ivan the Terrible. The Rurik dynasty was declared the main guarantor of the well-being of the Russian state. Also used here was the one that appeared at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. a legend about the origin of Rurik from the younger brother of the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus. In the Degree Book we encounter the first attempt at a conceptual presentation of history from the standpoint of state ideology. The author of the book compiled in the 1560s was guided by the same considerations. Kazan history - a lengthy and ideologically verified narrative about the annexation of the Kazan Khanate to the Moscow state, from which it follows that the campaign of Russian troops against Kazan in 1552 was not only a legal act, but even a feat of piety.

The combination of the news of the Chronograph, the chronicle, the Degree Book with the tradition of fine art represents Facial chronicle vault(1570s). Ten volumes of an illustrated chronicle have survived to this day, in which the history of mankind is presented from the Creation of the world to the events in Russia in the mid-16th century. In the Facial Vault, miniatures play the main role. The texts of the Chronograph, Chronicle or Degree Book (the main sources of the Facial Vault) are used as signatures under the miniatures. The main idea of ​​the Facial Vault is to clearly illustrate that Russian history crowns world history.

In the 16th century There was a process of unification of local cultural traditions. As a result, a unified all-Russian literature was created, which in many respects still had a medieval character. At the same time, there was the penetration from Western Europe of features of the culture of the New Age, humanistic literature, the main character of which was man - the arbiter of the historical process and his own destiny. These two trends, medieval and modern, not only came into conflict, but also complemented each other. This is how the literature of the Russian centralized state was created - medieval in form, but containing certain features of the New Age.